Mahakarmawibhangga 5 -  - Mahakarmavibhangga - Mahakarmavibhanga - Mahakammavibhanga - Great Exposition of the Law of Karma - महाकर्मविभङ्ग - Mahākarmavibhaṅga

Maha-kammavibhanga Sutta: The Great Exposition of Kamma translated from the Pali by Ñanamoli Thera Introduction by Bhikkhu Khantipalo This celebrated sutta shows some of the complexities of kamma and its results. Beginning with a strange view expressed by a confused wanderer and a confused answer given by a bhikkhu, the Buddha then gives his Great Exposition of Kamma which is based upon four "types" of people: the evil-doer who goes to hell (or some other low state of birth), the evil-doer who goes to heaven, the good man who goes to heaven, and the good man who goes to hell (or other low birth). The Buddha then shows how wrong views can arise from only partial understanding of truth. One can see the stages of this: (1) a mystic "sees" in vision an evil-doer suffering in hell, (2) this confirms what he had heard about moral causality, (3) so he says, "evil-doers always go to hell," and (4) dogma hardens and becomes rigid when he says (with the dogmatists of all ages and places), "Only this is true; anything else is wrong." The stages of this process are repeated for each of the four "persons," after which the Buddha proceeds to analyze these views grounded in partial experience and points out which portions are true (because verifiable by trial and experience) and which are dogmatic superstructure which is unjustified. Finally, the Buddha explains his Great Exposition of Kamma in which he shows that notions of invariability like "the evildoer goes to hell" are much too simple. The minds of people are complex and they make many different kinds of kamma even in one lifetime, some of which may influence the last moment when kamma is made before death, which in turn is the basis for the next life. 1. Thus have I heard. On one occasion the Blessed One was living at Rajagaha, in the Bamboo Grove, the Squirrels' Feeding Place. Now on that occasion the venerable Samiddhi was living in a forest hut. Then the wanderer Potaliputta, walking and wandering for exercise, came to the venerable Samiddhi and exchanged greetings with him, and when the courteous and amiable talk was finished, he sat down at one side. When he had done so, he said to the venerable Samiddhi: 2. "I heard and learned this, friend Samiddhi, from the monk Gotama's lips: 'Bodily kammas are vain, verbal kammas are vain, only mental kammas are true.' But there is actually that attainment having entered upon which nothing (of result of kammas) is felt at all." "Not so, friend Potaliputta, do not say thus, do not misrepresent the Blessed One; it is not good to misrepresent the Blessed One; the Blessed One would not say so: 'Bodily kammas are vain, verbal kammas are vain, only mental kammas are true.' And there is actually that attainment having entered upon which nothing (of result of kammas) is felt at all." "How long is it since you went forth, friend Samiddhi?" "Not long, friend, three years." "There now, what shall we say to the elder bhikkhus, when the young bhikkhu fancies the Master is to be defended thus? After doing intentional kamma, friend Samiddhi, by way of body, speech or mind, what does one feel (of its result)?" "After doing an intentional kamma, friend Potaliputta, by way of body, speech or mind, one feels suffering (as its result)." Then neither agreeing nor disagreeing with the words of the venerable Samiddhi, the wanderer Potaliputta got up from his seat and went away. 3. Soon after the wanderer Potaliputta had gone, the venerable Samiddhi went to the venerable Ananda and exchanged greetings with him, and when the courteous and amiable talk was finished, he sat down at one side. When he had done so, he told the venerable Ananda all his conversation with the wanderer Potaliputta. When this was said, the venerable Ananda told him: "Friend Samiddhi, this conversation should be told to the Blessed One. Come, let us go to the Blessed One, and having done so, let us tell him about this. As he answers, so we shall bear it in mind." "Even so, friend," the venerable Samiddhi replied. Then they went together to the Blessed One, and after paying homage to him, they sat down at one side. When they had done so, the venerable Ananda told the Blessed One all the venerable Samiddhi's conversation with the wanderer Potaliputta. 4. When this was said, the Blessed One told the venerable Ananda: "I do not even know the wanderer by sight, Ananda. How could there have been such a conversation? The wanderer Potaliputta's question ought to have been answered after analyzing it, but this misguided man Samiddhi answered it without qualification.[1] When this was said, the venerable Udayin said to the Blessed One: "'But, venerable sir, supposing when the venerable Samiddhi spoke, he was referring to this, namely, 'Whatever is felt is suffering.'"[2] 5. Then the Blessed One addressed the venerable Ananda: "See, Ananda, how this misguided man Udayin interferes. I knew, Ananda, that this misguided man Udayin would unreasonably interfere now. To begin with it was the three kinds of feeling that were asked about by the wanderer Potaliputta. If, when this misguided man Samiddhi was asked, he had answered the wanderer Potaliputta thus: 'After doing an intentional kamma by way of body, speech and mind (whose result is) to be felt as pleasure, he feels pleasure; after doing an intentional kamma by way of body, speech and mind (whose result is) to be felt as pain, he feels pain; after doing an intentional kamma by way of body, speech and mind (whose result is) to be felt as neither-pain-nor-pleasure, he feels neither-pain-nor-pleasure' — by answering him thus, Ananda, the misguided man Samiddhi would have given the wanderer Potaliputta the right answer. Besides, Ananda, who are the foolish thoughtless wanderers of other sects that they will understand the Tathagata's Great Exposition of Kamma? (But) if you, Ananda, would listen to the Tathagata expounding the Great Exposition of Kamma (you might understand it).[3] "This is the time, Blessed One, this is the time, Sublime One, for the Blessed One to expound the Great Exposition of Kamma. Having heard it from the Blessed One, the bhikkhus will bear it in mind." "Then listen, Ananda, and heed well what I shall say." "Even so, venerable sir," the venerable Ananda replied. The Blessed One said this: 6. "Ananda, there are four kinds of persons existing in the world. What four? (i) "Here some person kills living beings, takes what is not given, misconducts himself in sexual desires, speaks falsehood, speaks maliciously, speaks harshly, gossips, is covetous, is ill-willed, and has wrong view.[4] On the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappears in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell. (ii) "But here some person kills living beings... and has wrong view. On the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappears in a happy destination, in the heavenly world. (iii) "Here some person abstains from killing living beings, from taking what is not given, from misconduct in sexual desires, from false speech, from malicious speech, from harsh speech, from gossip, he is not covetous, is not ill-willed, and has right view.[5] On the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappears in a happy destination, in the heavenly world. (iv) "But here some person abstains from killing living beings... and has right view. On the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappears in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell. 7. (i) "Here, Ananda, in consequence of ardor, endeavor, devotion, diligence, and right attention, some monk or brahman attains such concentration of mind that, when his mind is concentrated, he sees with the heavenly eyesight, which is purified and surpasses the human, that some person kills living beings here, takes what is not given, misconducts himself in sexual desires, speaks falsehood, speaks maliciously, speaks harshly, gossips, is covetous, is ill-willed, has wrong view. He sees that on the dissolution of the body, after death, he has reappeared in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell. He says: 'It seems that there are evil kammas and that there is the result of misconduct; for I have seen that a person killed living beings here... had wrong view. I have seen that on the dissolution of the body, after death, he had reappeared in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell.' He says: 'It seems that one who kills living beings... has wrong view, will always, on the dissolution of the body, after death, reappear in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell. Those who know thus know rightly; those who know otherwise are mistaken in their knowledge.' So he obstinately misapprehends what he himself has known, seen and felt; insisting on that alone, he says: 'Only this is true, anything else is wrong.' 8. (ii) "But here in consequence of ardor, endeavor, devotion, diligence and right attention, some monk or brahman attains such concentration of mind that, when his mind is concentrated, he sees with the heavenly eyesight, which is purified and surpasses the human, that some person kills living beings here... has wrong view. He sees that on the dissolution of the body, after death, he has reappeared in a happy destination, in the heavenly world. He says: 'It seems there are no evil kammas, there is no result of misconduct. For I have seen that a person killed living beings here... had wrong view. I have seen that on the dissolution of the body, after death, he has reappeared in a happy destination, in the heavenly world.' He says: 'It seems that one who kills living beings... has wrong view will always, on the dissolution of the body, after death, reappear in a happy destination, in the heavenly world. Those who know thus know rightly; those who know otherwise are mistaken in their knowledge.' So he obstinately misapprehends what he himself has known, seen and felt; insisting on that alone, he says: 'Only this is true, anything else is wrong.' 9. (iii) "Here in consequence of ardor, endeavor, devotion, diligence and right attention, some monk or brahman attains such concentration of mind that, when his mind is concentrated, he sees with the heavenly eyesight, which is purified and surpasses the human, that some person abstains from killing living beings here... has right view. He sees that, on the dissolution of the body, after death, he has reappeared in a happy destination, in the heavenly world. He says: 'It seems that there are good kammas, there is result of good conduct. For I have seen that a person abstained from killing living beings here... had right view. I saw that on the dissolution of the body, after death, he had reappeared in a happy destination, in the heavenly world.' He says: 'It seems that one who abstains from killing living beings... has right view will always, on the dissolution of the body, after death, reappear in a happy destination, in the heavenly world. Those who know thus know rightly; those who know otherwise are mistaken in their knowledge.' So he obstinately misapprehends what he himself has known, seen and felt; insisting on that alone, he says: 'Only this is true; anything else is wrong.' 10. (iv) "But here in consequence of ardor, endeavor, devotion, diligence and right attention, some monk or brahman attains such concentration of mind that, when his mind is concentrated, he sees with the heavenly eyesight, which is purified and surpasses the human, that some person abstains from killing living beings here... has right view. He sees that on the dissolution of the body, after death, he has reappeared in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell. He says: 'It seems that there are no good kammas, there is no result of good conduct. For I have seen that a person abstained from killing here... had right view. I saw that on the dissolution of the body, after death, he had reappeared in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell.' He says: 'It seems that one who abstains from killing living beings... has right view, will always, on the dissolution of the body, after death, reappear in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell. Those who know thus know rightly; those who know otherwise are mistaken in their knowledge.' So he obstinately misapprehends what he himself has known, seen and felt; insisting on that alone, he says: 'Only this is true; anything else is wrong.' 11. (i) "Now, Ananda, when a monk or brahman says thus: 'It seems that there are evil kammas, there is the result of misconduct,' I concede that to him. "When he says thus: 'For I have seen that some person killed living beings... had wrong view. I saw that on the dissolution of the body, after death, he had reappeared in states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell,' I concede that to him. "When he says thus: 'It seems that one who kills living beings... has wrong view, will always, on the dissolution of the body, after death, reappear in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell,' I do not concede that to him. "When he says thus: 'Those who know thus know rightly; those who know otherwise are mistaken in their knowledge,' I do not concede that to him. "When he obstinately misapprehends what he himself has known, seen and felt; and insisting on that alone, he says: 'Only this is true; anything else is wrong,' I do not concede that to him. "Why is that? The Tathagata's knowledge of the Great Exposition of Kamma is different. 12. (ii) "Now when a monk or brahman says thus: 'It seems that there are no evil kammas, there is no result of misconduct,' I do not concede that to him. "When he says thus: 'For I have seen that a person killed living beings... had wrong view. I saw that on the dissolution of the body, after death, he had reappeared in a happy destination, in the heavenly world,' I concede that to him. "When he says thus: 'It seems that one who kills living beings... has wrong view, will always, on the dissolution of the body, after death, reappear in a happy destination, in the heavenly world,' I do not concede that to him. "When he says thus: 'Those who know thus know rightly; those who know otherwise are mistaken in their knowledge,' I do not concede that to him. "When he obstinately misapprehends what he himself has known, seen and felt; and insisting on that alone, he says: 'Only this is true; anything else is wrong,' I do not concede that to him. "Why is that? The Tathagata's knowledge of the Great Exposition of Kamma is different. 13. (iii) "Now when a monk or brahman says thus: 'It seems that there are good kammas, there is a result of good conduct,' I concede that to him. "When he says thus: 'For I have seen that a person abstained from killing living beings here... had right view. I saw that on the dissolution of the body after death, he had reappeared in a happy destination, in the heavenly world,' I concede that to him. "When he says: 'It seems that one who abstains from killing living beings... has right view will always, on the dissolution of the body, after death, reappear in a happy destination, in the heavenly world,'[6] I do not concede that to him. "When he says: 'Those who know thus know rightly; those who know otherwise are mistaken in their knowledge,' I do not concede that to him. "When he obstinately misapprehends what he himself has known, seen, and felt; and insisting on that alone he says: 'Only this is true: anything else is wrong,' I do not concede that to him. "Why is that? The Tathagata's knowledge of the Great Exposition of Kamma is different. 14. (iv) "Now when a monk or brahman says thus: 'It seems that there are no good kammas, there is no result of good conduct,' I do not concede that to him. "When he says thus: "For I have seen that a person abstained from killing living beings here... had right view. I saw that on the dissolution of the body, after death, he had reappeared in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell," I concede that to him. "When he says thus: 'One who abstains from killing living beings... has right view will always, on the dissolution of the body, after death, reappear in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell,' I do not concede that to him. "When he says thus: 'Those who know thus know rightly; those who know otherwise are mistaken in their knowledge,' I do not concede that to him. "When he obstinately misapprehends what he himself has known, seen and felt; and insisting on that alone, he says: 'Only this is true; anything else is wrong,' I do not concede that to him. "Why is that? The Tathagata's knowledge of the Great Exposition of Kamma is different. The Great Exposition of Kamma 15. (i) "Now, Ananda, there is the person who has killed living beings here... has had wrong view. And on the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappears in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell.[7] But (perhaps) the evil kamma producing his suffering was done by him earlier, or the evil kamma producing his suffering was done by him later, or wrong view was undertaken and completed by him at the time of his death.[8] And that was why, on the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappeared in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell. But since he has killed living beings here... has had wrong view, he will feel the result of that here and now, or in his next rebirth, or in some subsequent existence. 16. (ii) "Now there is the person who has killed living beings here... has had wrong view. And on the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappears in a happy destination, in the heavenly world.[9] But (perhaps) the good kamma producing his happiness was done by him earlier, or the good kamma producing his happiness was done by him later, or right view was undertaken and completed by him at the time of his death. And that was why, on the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappeared in a happy destination, in the heavenly world. But since he has killed living beings here... has had wrong view, he will feel the result of that here and now, or in his next rebirth, or in some subsequent existence.[10] 17. (iii) "Now there is the person who has abstained from killing living beings here... has had right view. And on the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappears in a happy destination, in the heavenly world.[11] But (perhaps) the good kamma producing his happiness was done by him earlier, or the good kamma producing his happiness was done by him later, or right view was undertaken and completed by him at the time of his death. And that was why, on the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappeared in a happy destination, in the heavenly world. But since he has abstained from killing living beings here... has had right view, he will feel the result of that here and now, or in his next rebirth, or in some subsequent existence. 18. (iv) "Now there is the person who has abstained from killing living beings here... has had right view. And on the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappears in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell.[12] But (perhaps) the evil kamma producing his suffering was done by him earlier, or the evil kamma producing his suffering was done by him later, or wrong view was undertaken and completed by him at the time of his death. And that was why, on the dissolution of the body, after death, he reappeared in the states of deprivation, in an unhappy destination, in perdition, in hell. But since he has abstained from killing living beings here... has had right view, he will feel the result of that here and now, or in his next rebirth, or in some subsequent existence.[13] 19. "So, Ananda, there is kamma that is incapable (of good result) and appears incapable (of good result); there is kamma that is incapable (of good result) and appears capable (of good result); there is kamma that is capable (of good result) and appears capable (of good result); there is kamma that is capable (of good result) and appears incapable (of good result)."[14] This is what the Blessed One said. The venerable Ananda was satisfied and he rejoiced in the Blessed One's words. Notes 1. These are two of the four ways of answering a question, the other two being: replying with a counter-question, and "setting aside" the question, i.e., replying with silence. 2. This is a quotation from the Buddha's words: see Samyutta Nikaya, Vedana Samyutta, Rahogata-vagga Sutta 1. 3. This is an addition necessary for understanding this sentence. 4. These are the ten unwholesome courses of kamma. 5. These are the ten wholesome courses of kamma. 6. This amounts to the belief in theistic religions where virtue and faith (=whatever is held to be right view) are supposed to guarantee salvation. 7. Devadatta, for instance, who persuaded prince Ajatasattu to murder his father (who was a stream-winner), three times attempted to murder the Buddha and once succeeded in wounding him, and caused a schism in the Sangha; the last two actions are certain to lead to birth in hell. 8. This series of three phrases appears to mean: earlier, either earlier in life before he undertook either the wholesome or unwholesome courses of kamma, or in some previous life; later, later in that very life, for even if a person does much evil kamma, usually he will also make some good kamma occasionally; wrong view... time of his death, this kind of wrong view will be of the type, "there is no kamma, no results of kamma, no evil, no results of evil," and so on. The next birth actually depends on the object of the last moments of a dying person's consciousness. At that time one should recollect all one's good kamma: generosity, loving-kindness, compassion, pure precepts and so on. Evil should not be thought of then though heavy evil kamma done previously may force itself into the mind and make recollection of one's generosity and virtue in keeping the precepts difficult or impossible. 9. A good example of this is the story of "Coppertooth," the public executioner who, after a career of murder as a bandit, then as the killer of his own bandit comrades and subsequently executioner of all criminals for fifty years, was taught by venerable Sariputta Thera and his mind eased of the heavy weight of evil kamma so that he attained heavenly rebirth. See Dhammapada Commentary, ii, 203-209. 10. Though such a person attained a heavenly rebirth the evil kamma made will still mature sooner or later; he has not escaped its results. 11. King Pasenadi of Kosala, for instance. 12. This was what happened to Queen Mallika, wife of King Pasenadi, who had led a good life, generous, keeping the Five Precepts, and the Eight Precepts on Uposatha days and so on, but once she did evil, having sexual relations with a dog. This unconfessed evil weighed heavily on her mind and she remembered it when dying. As a result she spent seven days in hell. Her power of goodness from the doing of many good kammas then gave her rebirth in a heavenly world. See Dhammapada Commentary, iii, 119-123. 13. Though this virtuous and good person has obtained a low rebirth through the power of previously done evil kamma, still the good kamma made by him will mature sooner or later, when it gets a chance. 14. This final terse paragraph may have been clear to the venerable Ananda Thera, or he may have asked for an explanation, as we require and find in the Commentary, which says: i. A strong unwholesome kamma (incapable of good result), the result of which will come before the results of weaker unwholesome kammas.ii. Wholesome kamma (which appears capable of good result) is followed by unwholesome death-proximate kamma which makes the former incapable of good result immediately. iii. A strong wholesome kamma will mature even before much accumulated unwholesome kamma. iv. Unwholesome kamma (which appears incapable of good result) is followed by wholesome death-proximate kamma which will mature first and is capable of good results. http://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/mn/mn.136.nymo.html http://tipitaka.wikia.com/wiki/Mahakammavibhanga_Sutta

Mahakarmawibhangga 4 -  - Mahakarmavibhangga - Mahakarmavibhanga - Mahakammavibhanga - Great Exposition of the Law of Karma - महाकर्मविभङ्ग - Mahākarmavibhaṅga

Mahakarmavibhangga ("Great Exposition of the Law of Karma") Buddhism postulates that for every cause there is an effect. Those who undertake good actions generate good effects, while those who initiate wrongful actions generate bad effects. Although the person committing the act may not immediately realize the results generated by his or her actions, the karmic effect will eventually play out, if not in this life then in a future existence. In 1885, the Borobudur’s Dutch conservators removed a portion of the stone casing that surrounds the entire monument in order to be able to repair the sagging walls and floors of the first gallery. To their amazement they discovered a series of previously unknown relief panels located directly under the curved molding that surrounds the monument’s outermost walled perimeter. The vast majority of these 160 relief panels were last seen in 1891, when archaeologists restored the monument’s casing stones to their original positions. During World War II, however, soldiers from the Japanese occupational force decided to uncover the hidden reliefs located at the southeast corner of the monument’s base. When archaeologists restored Borobudur during the 1980s, they decided to allow this southeast corner to remain exposed so that future visitors would be able to see a few fine examples of these reliefs for themselves. (1) Several of the hidden reliefs bear short inscriptions written in the Old Javanese language. Others have suggested that the architect may have elected to write down a few key words on the panels to give the sculptors some directions as to the nature of the scenes to be carved. These short inscriptions present "...graphical features similar to those in the script commonly used in royal charters between the last quarter of the 8th century and the first decades of the 9th. The obvious conclusion is that Candi Borobudur was very likely founded around the year 800 AD." (2) The content of these hidden reliefs is loosely based on a Sanskrit Buddhist text called the  Mahakarmavibhangga ("Great Exposition of the Law of Karma"). Buddhism postulates that for every cause there is an effect. Those who undertake good actions generate good effects, while those who initiate wrongful actions generate bad effects. Although the person committing the act may not immediately realize the results generated by his or her actions, the karmic effect will eventually play out, if not in this life then in a future existence or reincarnation. The Sanskrit-based Mahayana edition of the "Great Exposition of the Law of Karma" has never been fully translated into English. However, a Japanese edition is presently being prepared for publication. In response to an email from this writer, Professor Mauro Maggi replied that his recently issued book "...is an edition and translation of the Karmavibhanga fragments in Khotanese, a Middle Iranian language. The Khotanese version does not correspond to any of the known versions of the texts, including the Central Asian ones (Sanskrit, Sogdian, Tocharian). The Nepal manuscripts used by S. Lévi are being diplomatically edited in Japan (four installments have appeared so far in the "Annual report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University" (1998-2001). I am not aware of any complete English translation of the Nepalese Sanskrit recension, which might be sensible only if based on a new reading of the manuscripts (available from the Nepal-German Manuscripts Preservation Project) or on the Japanese diplomatical edition, once it is completed." However, a few short quotations from the Mahakarmavigghanga in English are available from various sources. For example, the Buddha tells the young Brahmin Shuka that there are a total of eighteen benefits to be derived from the building a Tathagata Stupa. " What are these eighteen? One will be born as the child of a great king One will have a noble body One will become beautiful and very attractive One will have sharp sense faculties One will be powerful and famous One will have a great entourage of servants One will become a leader of men One will be a support to all One will be renowned in the ten directions One will be able to express oneself in words and verses extensively One will receive offerings from men and gods One will possess many riches One will obtain the kingdom of a universal monarch One will have long life One's body will be like a collection of vajras One's body will be endowed with the major marks and the minor signs (of a Buddha) One will take rebirth in the three higher realms One will swiftly attain complete nirvana These eighteen points are the benefits of building a Tathagata Stupa." Elsewhere in the text the Buddha says the following: "If in this life you often use harsh speech to irritate others, and if you delight in exposing their private matters, and if you are stubborn and unyielding, then in your next life you will be born as a fire-spewing hungry ghost." We may derive additional information concerning the contents of this text by examining the version of the Mahakarmavibhangga that appears in the Pali Canon of Theravada Buddhism. In the Pali version of the text, the Sakyamuni presents a discourse in which he describes various human actions and their corresponding results. He begins by listing the ten wrongful actions of the evil-doer: killing living beings, stealing, engaging in sexual misconduct, speaking falsely, speaking maliciously, speaking harshly, engaging in gossip, coveting that which belongs to others, harboring ill will toward others, and holding wrongful views. In addition, he delineates the ten rightful actions, which consist of abstention from committing the aforementioned ten wrongful activities.   According to the Buddha, the minds of individuals are complex, generating a variety of karmic results within a single lifetime. The result of any karmic action may not even be realized during the same existence in which the act has been committed. Moreover, it is incorrect to presume that the evildoer always goes to hell, or that the good man always goes to heaven. Instead, the Buddha lists four possible outcomes concerning the evildoer who goes to hell, the evil doer who goes to heaven, the good man who goes to heaven, and the good man who goes to hell.   It is entirely possible, said the Buddha, that any good actions that a person commits just before death could result in an evildoer going straight to heaven. Or the evil actions of a person committed just before death could cause someone whom had previously performed numerous acts of merit to go straight to hell upon the dissolution of the body. However, neither heaven nor hell is to be regarded as a permanent condition. Each individual will eventually be reborn into future existences where the karma they have generated during previous lives will inevitably exert its effect. The Javanese artists have succeeding in transforming the dry, abstract contents of the text into a wonderful series of lively snapshots of Javanese village life during the period in which Borobudur was constructed, including scenes that depict people relaxing at home, working in the rice paddies, visiting the market, or fishing along the banks of a river. The reliefs have been structured show both the good and evil sides of the karmic equation, with some scenes portraying the punishments of hell while others display the rewards of heaven, with each panel that illustrates a karmic action immediately followed by a second panel that portrays the result of that action. The first 117 reliefs in the series portray a variety of different actions, all of which lead to an identical result, while the remaining 43 panels display the various results that can arise from a single action. Only 23 of the 160 panels in the series actually appear to portray the examples that the Buddha sets forth in the versions of the Mahakarmavibhangga Sutra that have survived into modern times. The remaining reliefs are either based on a secondary text or are the result of a purely local interpretation of the primary scripture. In either case, the reliefs reflect how the Javanese once viewed the Law of Karma within the context of their own indigenous customs and beliefs. (3) Although no one knows with certainty why Borobudur’s architect had decided to shroud these beautifully executed reliefs in eternal darkness, several modern investigators have proposed possible explanations. During the 1980s when archaeologists were restoring Borobudur they discovered a large number of carved architectural elements underneath the monument's northern stairway. Although none of this debris belonged to the monument that visitors, the carved stones appeared to belong to a building that must have been quite similar to Borobudur. An earthquake could have caused part of the building to collapse during construction, which would explain the opening up of a wide gully in the hillside. In this case, it would have been natural for he architect to use these damaged elements as infill before renewing the construction effort in order to lend further stability to the monument. This would explain the purpose of the stone casing that surrounds the entire monument, which may have been intended to enhance the pyramid’s structural stability. However, the modern structural engineers who have examined Borobudur says that the architect could have employed far less drastic measures than deploying a veritable mountain of stone. Supporters of the instability theory point to other on-site evidence that seems to support the proposition that Borobudur’s architect abandon the reliefs of the hidden foot for structural reasons. For example, when the casing stones were fitted over the hidden foot a few of the hidden panels were carelessly damaged, while other panels in the series were never completed. Had the architect simply decided to bury these reliefs underneath the promenade casing stones and then simply forget about them? Others believe that despite their lack of visibility, the reliefs of the hidden foot continued to play an invisible role in the monument's symbolic existence long after their disappearance. Since ancient times, the layout of the Javanese village home has followed a symbolic plan that is intended to conform in microcosm with the structure of the universe at large. “In the vertical plane, the house is typically divided into a tripartite scheme of things, where the roof space is identified with the realm of the gods and the floor level represents the mundane world of everyday existence. The void beneath the house is linked to an underworld populated by malevolent spirits, the souls of the dead and other supernatural agencies. In symbolic terms, movement from one part of the house to another represents cosmological journey between these different realms whose mystical geography is delineated in myth and ritual...." (4)  FOOTNOTES: (1) Perhaps the 160 relief panels of the Mahakarmavibbgangga may have a numerical significance in relationship to the 160 streams of consciousness that another Buddhist texts states is a contributor to the generation of karmic results. According to the Mahavairocana Sutra, a total of 60 "atomic" minds combine in various permutations to generate a total of 160 "molecular" streams of consciousness. (See the Enlightenment of Vairocana, translated by Alex Wayman, p. 41.) (2) Borobudur: A Monument of Mankind by Dr. Soekmono, p. 9. (3) Professor Ryusho Hikata has suggested a correlation between certain panels of this series and a sixth-century Buddhist text called the Lokaprajnapty-abhidharma. See Cultural Horizons of India, Volume IV by Lokesh Chandra, pp. 76-77. (4) Indonesian Heritage: Architecture, p. 18. http://www.borobudur.tv/karma_1.htm http://sahabatkata.wordpress.com/2007/04/04/the-great-exposition-of-the-law-of-karma/

Mahakarmawibhangga 3 -  - Mahakarmavibhangga - Mahakarmavibhanga - Mahakammavibhanga - Great Exposition of the Law of Karma - महाकर्मविभङ्ग - Mahākarmavibhaṅga

MUSEUM KARMAWIBHANGGA - Arca Tak Sempurna & Relief Tak Kasatmata Candi Borobudur Album Foto (9 foto) Karmawibhangga merupakan nama salah satu museum yang ada di kompleks Candi Borobudur. Selain menyimpan koleksi benda purbakala, di Museum Karmawibhangga juga terdapat patung Unfinished Buddha dan foto relief yang tersembunyi di balik kaki candi. MUSEUM KARMAWIBHANGGA Jl. Badrawati, Kecamatan Borobudur Kabupaten Magelang, Jawa Tengah Telp: +62 293 788266 Fax: +62 293 788312 MUSEUM KARMAWIBHANGGA - Arca Tak Sempurna & Relief Tak Kasatmata Candi Borobudur Tidak banyak orang yang tahu bahwa di Candi Borobudur terdapat panel-panel relief yang tidak bisa dilihat oleh pengunjung. Relief tersebut terpahat di dinding kaki candi yang sekarang tersembunyi di balik tatanan batu yang berfungsi sebagai penguat dasar Candi Borobudur supaya tidak melesak ke bawah. Diambil dari naskah Maha Karmawibhangga, relief tersebut menggambarkan tentang karma atau hukum sebab akibat, serta surga neraka sebagai imbalan akibat kehidupan dalam reinkarnasi. Meski relief itu tidak bisa disaksikan secara langsung di candi, setidaknya foto 160 panel relief dapat disaksikan di Museum Karmawibhangga. Guna melengkapi cerita kunjungan ke Borobudur, YogYES pun melangkahkan kaki menuju Museum Karmawibangga yang terletak di dekat pintu keluar kawasan Taman Wisata Candi Borobudur. Tak ada tiket yang perlu dibayarkan untuk masuk ke museum ini, sebab sudah satu paket dengan tiket masuk Candi Borobudur. Memasuki halaman museum, YogYES mendapati ribuan balok batu yang tertata rapi di halaman dan sedang dibersihkan oleh petugas. Batu-batu tersebut bukan batu biasa, melainkan bagian dari Candi Borobudur yang hingga kini belum ditemukan pasangannya sehingga masih disimpan di museum. Saat hendak masuk menuju Ruang Arca, seorang petugas yang sedang membersihkan batu berujar bahwa di dalam museum ada sebuah arca yang tidak bisa difoto. Sebagai manusia yang dibesarkan di era internet, YogYES hanya menanggapinya sambil lalu. Kami bahkan sudah melupakan ucapan itu ketika tiba-tiba saja kamera Nikon DSLR D40 ini mendadak error di Ruang Arca. Kebetulan? Entahlah, YogYES hanya mampu tersenyum kecut sambil meninggalkan ruangan itu. Selain menyimpan foto relief Karmawibhangga, foto pemugaran kedua (1973-1983), miniatur Borobudur, arca candi Hindu, patung kepala Buddha terbesar di Indonesia, dan benda purbakala lainnya, di halaman museum juga terdapat patung yang dikenal dengan nama Unfinished Buddha. Patung tersebut merupakan patung Buddha dengan bentuk yang tidak sempurna. Beberapa ahli berpendapat bahwa Unfinished Buddha merupakan patung yang dulunya berada di relung stupa induk. Ketidaksempurnaan patung tersebut untuk melambangkan kesempurnaan Sang Buddha, namun ada orang yang berpendapat bahwa bentuknya yang tidak sempurna itu murni kesalahan pemahat. Entah hipotesis mana yang benar, setidaknya koleksi di Museum Karmawibhangga semakin melengkapi kepingan puzzle tentang Candi Borobudur http://borobudur.yogyes.com/id/see-and-do/museum/karmawibhangga/

Mahakarmawibhangga 2 -  - Mahakarmavibhangga - Mahakarmavibhanga - Mahakammavibhanga - Great Exposition of the Law of Karma - महाकर्मविभङ्ग - Mahākarmavibhaṅga

Museum Maha Karmawibhangga Museum Karmawibhangga terletak di dalam kompleks Taman Wisata Candi Borobudur. Di dalam museum terdapat dua ruang display utama yaitu Ruang Pemugaran dan Ruang Karmawibhangga. Ruang Pemugaran berisi foto-foto pemugaran Candi Borobudur, teknik-teknik pemasangan batu, beberapa artefak hasil penggalian dalam rangka pemugaran candi Borobudur, dan beberapa aretefak bernuansa agama Hindu yang ditemukan di sekitar candi Borobudur. Ruang Karmawibhangga berisi 160 foto Relief Karmawibhangga yang dipahatkan pada kaki candi yang karena suatu sebab tidak bisa dinikmati oleh adanya penambahan kaki candi selebar 3 m mengelilingi kaki candi yang berelief Karmawibhangga. Di bagian selasar museum juga dapat diamati batu-batu candi yang belum ditemukan pasangannya sehingga belum bisa dipasang kembali ke posisi aslinya di candi Borobudur. Juga bisa dicermati cara-cara pemasangan batu relung. Terdapat juga koleksi kepala Budha terbesar di Indonesia ditutup dengan vitrin kaca. Kepala Budha ini merupakan potongan dari badan arca Budha yang ditemukan di Selomerto, Wonosobo. Koleksi lain yang tidak kalah pentingnya yang ditempatkan sebagai koleksi outdoor adalah cattra stupa (bagian atas stupa utama candi Borobudur) dan arca Buddha yang belum selesai yang berasal dari dalam stupa induk. Bagi masyarakat sekitar candi Borobudur, arca Buddha yang belum selesai tersebut dipercaya masih memiliki kekuatan magis. Mereka menyebutnya dengan nama Mbah Belet. Pada hari-hari yang dianggap keramat, misalnya Jum’at Kliwon, masih dapat dijumpai beberapa orang datang bunga sesaji datang ke arca tersebut. Lokasi Museum Jalan Pramudyawardani Borobudur Telp. (0293) 788266 Fax. (0293) 788132 Transportasi Jarak tempuh dari Bandar udara : 40 Km Jarak tempuh dari Pelabuhan Laut : 80 Km Jarak tempuh dari Terminal Bus : 1 Km Jarak tempuh dari Stasiun KA : 40 Km Jadwal Kunjung Museum buka pada hari : Pukul 06.00 - 17.30 Wib Fasilitas Luas Tanah / Luas Bangunan : 6.400 m2 / 764,46 m2 - Ruang Pameran Tetap - Ruang Pameran Temporer - Ruang Auditorium - Ruang Laboratorium/Konservasi - Ruang Penyimpanan Koleksi - Ruang Administasi - Audio Visual - Cafetaria/Coffe shop - Toilet Organisasi Jumlah Pegawai 34 orang Bimbingan Edukasi : 2 orang Tenaga Fungsional : 22 orang Tenaga Administrasi : 1 orang Keamanan : 3 orang Cleaning service : 6 orang http://wisatadanbudaya.blogspot.com/2009/10/museum-maha-karmawibhangga.html

Escape from the illusory world The lowest level of the monument exposes the “realm of desire”, a state of mind with a lack of morality, previous to the teachings of the Buddha. The second level shows the “realm of forms”, which is the stage when humans get wiser about the meaning of life and are trying to get virtuous. The third and highest level is the “realm of formlessness”, where one understands already that the visible world is illusory and the real aim of life is in the inside of oneself: purification in order to escape from the circle of reincarnations, meaning sufferings… Are you ready? MAHAKARMA BINANGGA: Relief numbering of 160 panels MAHAKARMA VIBANGGA: Relief the opt of laws, punishment and various sins. ELEPHANT: relief that tells the queens dream to Lumbini park in the preparation of the birth of budda (see panel 28) JATAKA: The lowest relief of the main wall which shows the prince who married a nymph. GANDARYUHA: Sudhana the merchant client who made pilgrimage by searching for spiritual knowledge. http://www.differentbaliindonesia.com/encyclopedia-borobudur-temple.html Mahakarmavibhanga Sutra – A Brief Critical Analysis Prof.Dr.Mrs.K.Sankarnarayan K.J. Somaiya Centre for Buddhist Studies The Buddha’s teaching on kamma (karma) has an important place in the doctrinal foundations of Buddhism. The nature of its moral efficacy is essential to Buddhist philosophy and practice. The Buddha’s doctrine on kamma has metaphysical implications, but these must be understood through textual analysis that takes into account the context of the Buddha’s discourses. Culture, language, myth, social life and religious rivalries all play a part in the composition of the text, both with regard to what is said and how it is said. The Buddha’s discourses in the canonical texts need to be contextualized as discourses, conversations in which he was in dialogue with his interlocutors: religious and lay inhabitants of his day. An important element of dialogue is that each part of it happens as a response to something preceding it. It does not happen in isolation. The Buddha’s discourses need to be read bearing in mind that he is responding to the world views and life- accounts of others. Keeping this in mind, this paper would like to throw light, in a brief critical analysis, based on the Sanskrit text “ Mahakarmavibhanga Sutra ” (based on Sanskrit fragments preserved in Nepal National Archives) and the Pali Mahakammavibhangasutta as in the Majjhima Nikaya. http://www.beyondthenet.net/slabs/abstract2006/articles/SLABS_CONF-2006-art_30.doc

Mahakarmawibhangga 1 -  - Mahakarmavibhangga - Mahakarmavibhanga - Mahakammavibhanga - Great Exposition of the Law of Karma - महाकर्मविभङ्ग - Mahākarmavibhaṅga

  Mahakarmawibhangga Di berbagai daerah di tanah air, kita menemukan berbagai kitab yang berisi tata cara pengobatan dan jenis-jenis obat tradisional. Di Bali, misalnya, ditemukan kitab usadha tuwa, usadha putih, usadha tuju, dan usadha seri yang berisi berbagai jenis obat tradisional. Dalam cerita rakyat seperti cerita Sudamala, dikisahkan bagaimana Sudamala berhasil menyembuhkan mata pendeta Tambapetra yang buta. Demikian pula relief cerita Mahakarmawibhangga  pada kaki Candi Borobudur, menggambarkan seorang anak kecil yang sakit dan sedang diobati dua orang tabib. Salah satu relief lainnya, juga memperlihatkan kegiatan seorang tabib sedang meracik obat. http://www.ubb.ac.id/menulengkap.php?judul=Obat%20Tradisional%20dan%20Tanaman%20Obat%20di%20Indonesia&&nomorurut_artikel=293 http://miraculummundi.blogspot.com/2011/06/jamu-8-traditional-medicine-in.html Since hundreds year ago, ancestors of the Indonesian nation has been known for clever mix herbs and traditional medicines. Various plant kind, several roots,  and another natural ingredients formulated as a medicinal herb to cure various diseases. Those ingredients is used also to watch over body condition so that permanent well, prevent disease,  and partly for beautify self. Proficiency dispensing materials were passed on from generation to generation, from one generation to the next, down to today. at various region at fatherland, we find various therapy customs and manners containing book and tradisional medicine kinds. At Balinese, for example, found book Usadha Tuwa, Usadha Putih, Usadha Tuju, and Usadha Seri containing various tradisional medicine kind. In folklore likes story Sudamala, narrated to how Sudamala success cure priest eye Tambapetra blind. Such also story relief Mahakarmawibhangga  in temple foot Borobudur, describe a ill moppet and being cured two physicians. one of the another relief, also shows the activities of a physician is dispensing medicine. http://www.herbal-pharmacist.com/traditional-medicine-and-medicinal-plants-in-indonesia http://miraculummundi.blogspot.com/2011/06/jamu-9-traditional-medicine-in.html One of the reliefs found on Borobudur temple shows the habit of drinking jamu Some plants used in jamu and even the making of jamu were found depicted on the walls of ancients Buddhist and Hindu temples in Java as was found in Borobudur, Prambanan, Penataran and Sukuh. Borobudur was the Buddhist temple built during 8th - 9th century, while Prambanan was the Hindu temple built at the time of Majapahit during Sanjaya dynasty. In the relic of the Borobudur temple, a number of medicinal plants commonly used for making jamu such as Aegle marmelos (Maja), Antidesma bunius (Wuni), Borassus flabilifer (Siwalan), Calophyllum inophyllum (Nyamplung), Datura metel (Kecubung), and Syzygium cumini (Jamblang) are found. Buku_Heritage_Jamu.pdf Pengobatan menggunakan ramuan jamu sudah dimulai oleh nenek moyang bangsa Indonesia. Bukti sejarah tertua yang menggambarkan kebiasaan meracik, pemeliharaan kesehatan dan minum jamu ditemukan pada relief Candi Borobudur, Prambanan, Penataran, Sukuh dan Tegalwangi, yang dibangun pada masa Kerajaaan Hindu dan Budha. Relief pada candi Borobudur, yang didirikan pada tahun 772 M, menggambarkan perawatan kesehatan bagian luar tubuh dengan pemijatan dan penggunaan ramuan jamu dan dalam tubuh dengan minum jamu. http://media-herbal.blogspot.com/2011/01/jamu-warisan-budaya-bangsa.html http://kimibata.webnode.com/news/deklarasi-jamu-brand-indonesia/ http://globallinksosbud.blogspot.com/p/studi-kasus.html Cara pembuatan jamu sudah terlukis pada dinding candi Hindu dan Buddha, seperti pada candi Borobudur, Prambanan, Penataran, dan Sukuh. Beberapa alat yang digunakan waktu itu diantaranya: lumpang, pipisan, dan ulekan, untuk membuat dan mengaduk jamu dan herba, baik untuk kesehatan maupun kecantikan. http://riesnazaslyjurnal.blogspot.com/2011/03/jamu-rahasia-kecantikan-diraja.html

  Mahakarmawibhangga Salah satu adegan dalam kisah Mahakarmmawibhangga,  terlihat serombongan orang (berpayung) memberikan persembahan kepada orang-orang miskin.  Pada adegan kiri terlihat ada seorang penting (bangsawan?) yang dihadap oleh para pengikutnya. http://hurahura.wordpress.com/2010/12/31/akar-seni-lukis-potret-dalam-kebudayaan-indonesia/ Salah Satu Panel Relief Karmawibhangga tentang menggunjing orang lain http://www.roodebrugsoerabaia.com/2010/11/arkeologi-di-kebon-rojo.html Salah satu ukiran Karmawibhangga di dinding Candi Borobudur (lantai 0 sudut tenggara). Sesuai dengan makna simbolis pada kaki candi, relief yang menghias dinding batu yang terselubung tersebut,  menggambarkan hukum karma.  Deretan relief tersebut bukan merupakan cerita seri (serial) tetapi pada setiap pigura  menggambarkan suatu cerita yang mempunyai kolerasi sebab akibat.  Relief tersebut tidak saja memberi gambaran terhadap perbuatan tercela manusia  disertai dengan hukuman yang akan diperolehnya,  tetapi juga perbuatan baik manusia dan pahala.  Secara keseluruhan merupakan penggambaran kehidupan manusia  dalam lingkaran lahir – hidup – mati (samsara) yang tidak pernah berakhir,  dan oleh agama Budha rantai itulah yang akan di akhiri untuk menuju kesempurnaan. http://mrfahmi.wordpress.com/2009/10/16/sejarah-candi-borobudur/ http://ludiamaharani.wordpress.com/ Hubungan Sosial Suasana Pasar Tradisional

Great Exposition of the Law of Karma  - Mahakarmawibhangga महाकर्मविभङ्ग - Mahākarmavibhaṅga महाकर्मन् - Mahākarman महाकर्मन् accomplishing great works महाकर्मन् great work महा - Mahā महा (also: बडा, महान, विशाल, वृहत)    grand कर्म - Karma कर्म (also: क्रिया, काम, कृति, करतूत)        act कर्म (also: अभिप्राय, वस्तु, पदार्थ, प्रयोजन)    object कर्म (also: क्रिया, काम, कृत्य, वीरता का काम)    deed कर्म (also: पथ, सडक, पगडण्डी, मार्ग)    path कर्म (also: होनहार, प्रारब्ध, भावी, भवितव्यता)    destiny कर्म (also: काम, नौकरी, धंधा, उद्यम)    employment कर्म (also: काम, कार्य, व्यवसाय, संपादन)    work विभङ्ग - Vibhaṅga विभङ्ग furrow विभङ्ग wave विभङ्ग destruction विभङ्ग contraction विभङ्ग division विभङ्ग frustration विभङ्ग stoppage विभङ्ग breaking विभङ्ग disturbance विभङ्ग fraud विभङ्ग interruption विभङ्ग wrinkle विभङ्ग bending विभङ्ग deception विभङ्ग fracture

ACARAKI - ACRAKI - CRAKI - CRAKEN

Bakul jamu nyiapaké ombènan tradhisional ing pasar Yogyakarta.  Foto kolèksi Tropenmuseum (1910-1930). Vrouwen tijdens de bereiding van jamu,  een traditioneel geneesmiddel,  op de markt te Jogjakarta. Zelfmedicatie is en was een belangrijk onderdeel van het gedrag rond ziekte en gezondheid van de bevolking van de Indische Archipel. Het maakt onderdeel uit van het complex dat we doorgaans met de term traditionele geneeskunst aanduiden. Bij de zelfmedicatie zijn kruidendrankjes (djamoe, nu jamu) van grote betekenis. Sommige mensen bereiden deze drankjes zelf, maar doorgaans komt er een in kruiden gespecialiseerde dukun (traditionele genezer, vaak vrouwelijk) aan te pas. Jamu wordt tegenwoordig ook fabrieksmatig klaargemaakt, met als curieus voorbeeld het merk 'Njonja Meneer', dat trouwens al in de koloniale tijd bestond. (P. Boomgaard, 2001). Sumber

Bila kita ingin mengkaji sejauh mana manfaat dari Jamu Tradisional Indonesia, sepertinya akan menghabiskan bab demi bab yang begitu banyak mengurai bahan-bahan alami jamu yang terdapat pada tumbuh-tumbuhan yang ada di Indonesia. Apalagi pengetahuan tentang pengobatan tradisional dengan jamu, sudah dikenal sejak periode kerajaan Hindu-Jawa. Hal ini dibuktikan dengan adanya Prasasti Madhawapura dari jaman Majapahit yang menyebut adanya tukang meramu jamu yang disebut Acaraki. Pada relief Candi Borobudur sekitar tahun 800 – 900 Masehi, juga menggambarkan adanya kegiatan membuat jamu. http://dinkes.cilacapkab.go.id/index.php?pilih=news&mod=yes&aksi=lihat&id=50 http://www.airmancur.co.id/artikel/read/sejarah-jamu_2 http://suaramerdeka.com/v1/index.php/read/cetak/2011/05/15/146564/Berharap-Dokter-Tak-Alergi-Resepkan-Jamu http://health.kompas.com/read/2011/04/06/06330034/Saatnya.Melirik.Jamu.Tradisional Jamu wis dadi tradisi atusan malah éwonan taun kepungkur.[2] Tradisi ngracik lan ngombé jamu wis dadi budaya nalika jaman krajan Hindhu-Jawa.[2] Prastawa iki kabuktékaké kanthi Prasasti Madhawapura ing jaman Majapahit.[2] Ing Prasasti Madhawapura katulis yén jaman semana ana profési utawa pagawéan tukang ngracik jamu kang diarani Acaraki.[2] http://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamu The origin of Jamu is obscure. No one really knows its source. However, popular stories link first Jamu to seventeenth century Mataram Hindu Empire, where ladies of the palace who rather preoccupied with keeping themselves young and beautiful for their husband undertook the preparation of Jamu and herbal cosmetics. And Madhawapura's Inscription from Majapahit Empire tells us about Jamu maker that call as Acaraki. This tradition was being flourished in the palace of Jogjakarta and Solo princes, those become main reference for manufacturers Jamu in Indonesia. But until the early of 20th century, this tradition is still exclusively, only aristocrat communities doing this. Since 1910, Tan Swan Nio and Siem Tjiang Nio hold Djamoe Industrie en Chemicalen Handel IBOE Tjap 2 Njonja in Surabaya to produce Jamu for common people. And history of modern Jamu has begun. Jamu are the unique herbal remedies, which evidently potent to cure anything for many centuries. Javanese calls Jamu for herbal remedies, without chemist material as additive. Jamu has traditional connotation, because Jamu is ancient tradition, before modern pharmacology comes in Indonesia. Some formulas have a hundred years old and are used until now. Dukun or tabib , a traditional doctor has been introducing this mention in ancient era. From them, drinking Jamu tradition has been popular in common people. And now, almost 80% of Indonesian people ever consume Jamu. For Indonesian people, Jamu is very popular as milk popularity for western. The origin of Jamu is obscure. No one really knows its source. However, popular stories link first Jamu to seventeenth century Mataram Hindu Empire, where ladies of the palace who rather preoccupied with keeping themselves young and beautiful for their husband undertook the preparation of Jamu and herbal cosmetics. And Madhawapura's Inscription from Majapahit Empire tells us about Jamu maker that call as Acaraki. This tradition was being flourished in the palace of Jogjakarta and Solo princes, those become main reference for manufacturers Jamu in Indonesia. But until the early of 20th century, this tradition is still exclusively, only aristocrat communities doing this. Since 1910, Tan Swan Nio and Siem Tjiang Nio hold Djamoe Industrie en Chemicalen Handel IBOE Tjap 2 Njonja in Surabaya to produce Jamu for common people. http://forum.indianetzone.com/5/jamu_treatment.htm 1910 Tan Swan Nio dan Siem Tjiong Nio, mulai melakukan proses manufaktur Jamu dengan mendirikan Djamoe Industrie en Chemicalen Handel "IBOE" Tjap 2 Njonja di Jalan Ngaglik 3-5 Surabaya. Djamoe Industrie en Chemicalien Handel "IBOE" Tjap 2 Njonja makin berkembang. Semakin terkenal setelah mampu menyembuhkan dan memberantas epidemi 'batuk' di Surabaya. Skala perusahaan makin besar, dan rekrutmen tenaga kerja dari luar makin banyak.  http://www.jamuiboe.com/content.php?isi=sejarah   PT Jamu Iboe Jaya, didirikan pada tahun 1910 oleh Tan Swan Nio dan putrinya, Siem Tjiong Nio, di Surabaya, pada waktu itu bernama Djamoe Industrie en Chemicalen Handel "IBOE" Tjap 2 Njonja. Sejak 1973 perusahaan ini menggunakan nama PT Jamu Iboe Jaya. Pada 1980 PT Jamu Iboe Jaya mendirikan PT IBOE Sativa Camilind untuk memproduksi jamu dengan bentuk alternatif. Seiring dengan perkembangan perusahaan, PT Jamu Iboe Jaya merelokasi pabrik dan perkantorannya ke desa Tanjungsari, Taman, Sidoarjo. Di lokasi seluas 2,38 ha, perusahaan jamu tertua ini melakukan proses produksinya sampai sekarang. http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamu_iboe Jamu Jago di dirikan pada tahun 1918 dengan seorang tokoh bernama TK Suprana dari Wonogiri Jawa Tengah. Jamu Jago sudah bertempur dalam industri kesehatan selama 4 generasi dan sekarang di kepalai oleh; Ivana Suprana (Direktur Utama Jamu Jago. Arya Suprana (Direktur Utama Degepharm), Tatum Suprana (Direktur Human Resource), Andoyo (Direktur Keuangan) dan Vincent Suprana (Product Manager Coordinator). http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamu_Jago#Sejarah Pada tahun 1919 atas dorongan keluarga berdirilah Jamu Cap Potret Nyonya Meneer yang kemudian menjadi cikal bakal salah satu industri jamu terbesar di Indonesia. Selain mendirikan pabrik Ny Meneer juga membuka toko di Jalan Pedamaran 92, Semarang. Perusahaan keluarga ini terus berkembang dengan bantuan anak-anaknya yang mulai besar. http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyonya_Meneer  Jamu Air Mancur didirikan pada 1963 oleh 3 sekawan Kimun Ongkosandjojo alias (Ong Kiem Oen), Wonosantoso, and Hindrotanojo (semuanya sudah almarhum). Sampai sekarang, kepemilikan saham PT Jamu Air Mancur masih dikuasai oleh generasi kedua dan ketiga 3 sekawan tersebut. Namun, sejak 1991 pengelolaan perusahaan ini telah diserahkan kepada para professional, bukan lagi oleh para anggota keluarga. http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamu_Air_Mancur

 crakèn kn. 1 adon-adoning jamu kayata mrica, pala lsp; 2 bakul ut. dodol adon-adoning jamu;  bahan obat-obatan; penjual bahan obat-obatan kc. craki.  craki kn. bakul dodolan crakèn;  penjual bahan obat-obatan kaya Cina craki: gêmi bangêt, cêthil bangêt, petung bangêt.

Kegiatan Perdagangan Pantai Utara Jawa Richadiana Kadarisman Kartakusuma Manggala        Data perdagangan dalam prasasti secara khusus terdapat pada prasasti-prasasti yang bertema sima termuat pada kelompok yang disebut drawya haji. Suatu kelompok yang terdiri dari golongan abdi dalem, pejabat-pejabat dari berbagai kategori dengan kata lain kelompok atau golongan yang hidup dan menghidupi kas kerajaan. Di dalam kelompok itu disebutkan kelompok petugas pajak dengan berbagai keterangan tentang jenis-jenis dan jumlah benda-benda yang secara garis besar terdiri dari hasil bumi (pertanian), pajak tanah dan pajak perdagangan. Khusus pajak perdagangan disebut samwyawahara dan pajak usaha kerajinan yang disebut misra-paramisra.        Jawa Timur berada dalam kesatuan mandala kekuasaan dengan Jawa Tengah (tidak terpisah) sebagai kekuatan politik kerajaan Mataram Kuno namun sejak Pu Sindok memerintah pusat kekuatan politik yang semula berada di Jawa Tengah dipindahkan ke Jawa Timur seperti tercatat dalam prasasti Anjuk Ladang 915 (OJO XLVI) dan prasasti Paradah (OJO XLVIII) “...kita prasiddha maňrakşa kađatwan rahyaŋ ta i mđaŋ i bhūmi matarâm i watu galuh...” (...pusat kerajaan Mataram yang semula berada di Mdang kini berada di Watugaluh). Watugaluh adalah desa kecil di delta sungai Brantas, kecamatan Tembelang, kabupaten Jombang (Krom 1931:206; cf. Boechari l976:1-3). Edi Sedyawati (1990: 343) menyebut pemerintahan Mataram Kuno Jawa Timur sebagai Mataram Awal (I) Jawa Timur. Pu Sindok layaknya Nararyya Wijaya (Raden Wijaya) adalah juga ”The Founder” pendiri wangsa baru yang disebut Dinasti Isana. Selanjutnya secara turun-temurun memerintah Mataram Kuna dengan pusat kekuasaan di Jawa Timur hingga masa Airlangga (di dalam prasasti Calcutta/Pucangan mengaku keturunan Isana). Selain alasan peristiwa bencana alam (letusan gunung), pindahnya pusat kekuasaan ke Jawa Timur karena pantai utara Jawa Timur mencapai puncak perkembangan perdagangan Nusantara. Komoditi Perdagangan       Data mengenai aktivitas perdagangan dalam prasasti biasanya dikaitkan dengan pengaturan mengenai batas barang-barang yang tidak dikenai pajak dan yang dikenai pajak. Dalam hubungan ini jika barang yang dijual tidak melebihi ketentuan maka petugas pajak tidak diperbolehkan untuk memungutnya (tan kna de sang mangilala drawya haji) dan pajak hanya dikenakan atas kelebihan barang. Jumlah terbanyak yang termasuk ke dalam golongan mangilala drawya haji ditemukan dalam prasasti Cane walau tidak seluruhnya merupakan pedagang melainkan terdiri dari berbagai profesi.        Istilah-istilah yang terdapat dalam prasasti secara langsung menunjuk kepada kegiatan perdagangan adalah tuha dagang atau juru dagang yaitu ketua/pengawas para pedagang. Istilah yang merujuk kepada profesi jual-beli disebut hadagang, banyaga atau awalija. Kendati tidak selalu disebutkan di dalam seluruh prasasti namun jenis-jenis barang yang diperdagangkan kerap dihantar atau dahului kata wli (beli) termasuk besar pajak yang ditentukan. Di samping berbagai jenis barang dagangan, juga kelompok yang melakukan usaha pelayanan, khususnya pelayanan angkutan dengan menggunakan tenaga hewan seperti atitih (kuda), juga alat angkut lainnya seperti gulungan (gerobag), mapadati (pedati) dan parahu (perahu). Sedangkan komoditi perdagangan adalah hasil karya undhagi/undahagi, dalam bahasa Indonesia sebagai undagi kerap rancu dengan pengertian pertukangan atau tukang kayu namun pengertian sesungguhnya tidak demikian sederhana. Istilah undhagi/ undahagi selain untuk menyebut tukang kayu, juga merujuk kepada tukang bangunan dan lainnya. Lebih tegas lagi undhagi/ undahagi adalah ahli yang memiliki keterampilan membuat segala benda kebutuhan sehari-hari terutama peralatan termasuk benda-benda yang berkaitan dengan mata pencaharian sebagian hasilnya diperdagangkan dan bukan tidak mungkin sekaligus sebagai pedagang juga. Karenanya undhagi/undahagi dikenai pajak baik hasil kerjanya maupun peralatannya. Termasuk undhagi/undahagi adalah tukang emas, tukang perak, tulang permata dan lain-lain yang sering diberi sebutan pande atau pandai.       Memang, tidak setiap prasasti menuliskan aktivitas perdagangan, antara lain prasasti Biluluk II (1391) “..asambewara sarwwa papat hadagang, hamahat ... hamalanten hamdel hamuter hanglaksa hangapu ... palalanjer luputing titiban sahang, cabe kemukus kapulaga besi kawali besi pinggan kapas ...” (... berdagang serba empat: pedagang, pemahat, tukang kain halus, pembuat celup berwarna biru, pembuat minyak yang menggunakan gilingan/ hamuter, pembuat laksa, penjual kapur... termasuk hasil bumi yang diperjual-belikan seperti merica, cabe, kemenyan, kapulaga, besi, kuwali besi, pinggan kapas...). Tiap-tiap prasasti memiliki istilah-istilah menyebut jenis barang dagangan yang sama sejalan perkembangan dan pengenalan bahasa periode yang diwakilinya namu pada dasarnya berkaitan dengan ketentuan pajak.        Secara garis besar barang-barang yang diperdagangkan terdapat tidak kurang dari 31 macam dan tidak berati bahwa setiap pedagang menjual secara khusus satu jenis barang dagangan. Daftar jenis barang tersebut dapat dikelompokkan ke dalam: a) jenis makanan dan bumbu-bumbuan dan pangan b) jenis sandang c) jenis perlengkapan umum, dan d) hewan (ternak).        Jenis makanan dan bumbu-bumbuan meliputi bawang (bawang), bras (beras), garam/wuyah (garam), gula (gula), inga (minyak), pipakan/kapulaga (jahe/ tanaman jahe), wwahan (buah-buahan), pucang (pinang), sireh/sirih (sirih) pja (ikan laut), acaraki (jamu), abakul gereh (penjual ikal asin), jurungan (minyak jarak), kletik (minyak kletik), manggula (pembuat gula), tpung kawung (tepung aren), wli tamba (penjual obat/ramuan/jamu, [h/ang-]laksa (pembuat makanan laksa), pamadamadan (penjual madat?) dalam lontar Adigama padanananya amahat berkenaan dengan penyadap enau, pohon kelapa atau pembuat tuak, heuma (berbagai sajen).       Jenis sandang seperti wasana (busana [bahan] pakaian), amahang/ kasumbha (bahan pewarna), kapas, lawe (benang). Jenis perlengkapan umum meliputi galuhan (permata), gangsa (perunggu), anganyam (keranjang), labeh (kulit penyu), makacapuri (kotak sirih, cerana), mangawari (permata atau perhiasan?), pamanikan (penjual permata), maniga (pembuat perhiasan dari permata), pawdihan (pembuat kain, penenun?), amanganten (pembuat kain halus), pobaran (pembuat soga/kain), manglakha (pembuat celup). Salah satu contoh yang paling jelas termuat dalam prasasti Madhawapura: “...wahara drawya sang hyang dharmma ri madhawapura, hininganan kweh kdiknya an nikang tigang kabayan ri sasambya-wahara, abhasana tigang dasar, angawali tigang dasar,... dst. (berdagang dan pedagang adalah milik bangunan suci di Madhawapura maka seluruh peraturan pajak dan jumlahnya ditentukan olehnya, penjual pakaian hanya boleh 3 dasar, penjual kuali 3 dasar...dst).        Perlengkapan umum yang dipergunakan sehari-hari adalah barang-barang yang dibuat dari hasil pertukangan (undhahagi). Temasuk apande salwirning pande (pembuat benda-benda logam hasil tempa seperti apandai wsi (pandai besi), apandai dadap (pandai tameng), apandai mas (pandai mas), apandai salaka (pandai perak), apandai tamra (pandai tembaga), apandai singyasingyan (pandai benda-benda tajam), kangsi (gamelan dari kuningan) yang seluruhnya termasuk drawya haji saparanaya dwal-awli (pajak raja tentang jual beli). Juga amaranggi (pembuat benda-benda kayu yang diukir?), wli panjut (penjual obor/clupak/teplok), masayang (peralatan dari tembaga), tambra (lempeng tembaga), timah, wsi (besi), angawali (pembuat kuali). Pengrajin yang menjual hasil pekerjaannya seperti andyun (pembuat tempayan), angendi (pembuat kendi), angapus (pembuat benang/ tali), anghapu (pembuat kapur), anghanyam-hanyam/agawai kisi/agawai runggi (pembuat anyaman: keranjang), ahareng (pembuat arang), magawai payung (pembuat payung), pabata (pembuat bata), angrajut (pembuat jala), mopih (daun rokok klinting), pawlit (atap alang-alang), sikpan (hulu pedang), watu tajem (asah pisau), limus galuh (kamasan perak), lancang (perahu), palamak (lemak), wli wadung (kapak), lancang (pembuat perahu), dang (peralatan memasak).        Jenis ternak meliputi sapi, wdus (kambing) dan celeng (babi) weuk (babi hutan), kebo/hadangan (kerbau), kidang (kijang), warai (kera). Dan jenis unggas terdiri dari hangsa (angsa), hayam (ayam) terutama andah (itik). Diluar itu ada juga kaluang (kalong), alap-alap. Ikan yang dikenal meliputi hayuyu (kepiting sungai), hurang (udang), wagalan, kawan-kawan, dlag (jenis-jenis ikan air tawar), gtam (keping laut), hnus (cumi), iwak knas (kerang), kadiwas, layar-layar, prang, tanggiri, rumahan, slar dan kura-kura (jenis-jenis ikan laut) dan lain-lain.       Beberapa sumber prasasti menyebut makanan yang diawetkan bagi persediaan dan komoditi perdagangan lokal adalah deng (dendeng), asin-asin (diasinkan). Bahwa jenis-jenis barang yang diproduksi untuk kebutuhan sehari hari juga diperjualbelikan sebagai barang dagangan mungkin dapat mengacu kepada beberapa prasasti bertema sima abad ke 10, walaupun prasasti tersebut berasal dari Mataram kuno Jawa Tengah (Dyah Balitung) namun seluruhnya ditemukan di Jawa Timur antara lain prasasti Sangsang (907) “..yang pangulang kbo ya ruang puluh kboannya sapi patangpuluh wdus wuangpuluh andah sawantayan....” ketentuan jumlah hewan ternak yang dikenai pajak bila penjualan dilakukan di wilayah sima, sedangkan ikan dijual dinyatakan dengan jamwangan.       Sumber tertulis maupun data arkeologi (relief candi) memperlihatkan bahwa telah banyak bahan makanan yang dikenal masa itu, yakni beras, umbi-umbian (ubi, talas), cabe, labu, kacang-kacangan, rempah-rempah (jahe, jamuju, sirih, kapulaga), buah-buahan (durian, rambutan, manggis, jerus, kecapi/sentul, sukun, langsat, jamblang, salak, nangka, jambu bol, wuni, mangga, pisang) dan jenis palem (kelapa). Di antara bahan pangan nabati yang utama adalah beras yang merupakan bahan pokok utama. Sebagaimana disebutkan dalam berbagai prasasti Sima merupakan peristiwa terpenting dalam kehidupan kerajaan mencantumkan skul diolah dengan berbagai variasinya terutama skul paripurna (tumpeng) sebagai sajian paling utama dan sakral. Prasasti menyebutkan berbagai jenis minuman yang dikonsumsi dari beras dan tumbuh-tumbuhan yang diolah proses fermentasi, sekurang-kurangnya dikenal tujuh jenis minuman.      Disebutkan barang-barang tersebut diangkut dan diperdagangkan dengan alat-alat tertentu tetapi ditetapkan dengan jumlah tertentu baik jumlah barang maupun alat pengangkutnya. Khusus hewan ternak ditetapkan berdasarkan jumlah saat digembalakan oleh si penggembala misalnya kerbau tidak boleh lebih dari 20 ekor, sapi 10 ekor, kambing 80 ekor, celeng 2 gerombolan, itik 2 wantayan (kandang, sangkar). Dalam hal ini barangkali keterangan prasasti Madhawapura dapat dipakai sebagai bahan pertimbangan bahwa pada hari pasar pedagang pakaian hanya diperbolehkan mengisi 3 dasar (lahan), perahu tundan (perahu yang diberi atap) yang berdagang ke hilir hanya diperkenankan tiga kabayan, pedagang gereh tiga kabayan, yang berjualan dengan kereta (sarathi) juga tiga kabayan. Besar kemungkinan keterangan tentang jumlah tersebut ditentukan sehubungan kepada besar kecilnya tempat (lahan pasar?) untuk berjualan menyangkut ketertiban masyarakat setempat, bagaimana dengan lahan lebih besar belum diketahui (?). Sekurang-kurangnya barang-barang produksi terdiri dari bahan makanan, pakaian dan jenis perhiasan, peralatan rumah tangga, alat kerja dan barang-barang unik?.      Selain ketentuan barang yang berkait dengan pajak, variabel penting lainnya yang berkait langsung dengan perdagangan adalah satuan berat dan jumlah dan mata uang. Untuk satuan berat yang dikenal dalam prasasti adalah catu, sukat, kulak, batang, nalih, pikul, bantal, kati dan jung. Catu diukur dari batok kelapa yang dipotong bagian atas-nya dipergunakan mengukur beras, rempah-rempah, garam, minyak dan bahan pewarna. Satuan sukat atau kulak sama dengan 4 catu sedangkan istilah batang diperkirakan batang bambu yang digunakan untuk menakar jenis cair. Selanjutnya ukuran banyaknya dipersamakan dengan 8 kulat (sukat). Ukuran-ukuran tersebut digunakan secara umum dalam aktivitas perdagangan internasional karena berita Cina menerangkan satuan disebut nai-li sebagai salah satu sistem pengukuran yang dipakai di Jawa masa itu hingga abad ke 15.      Kati merupakan satuan berat digunakan mengukur berbagai barang termasuk menghitung uang dalam sistem moneter. Ukuran berat satu kati sama dengan 750 gram sebagai satuan hitung dasar, kati tidak sekedar digunakan di Nusantara juga di Malaysia hingga sekarang. Ada juga satuan tahil yang diperkirakan sama dengan 38 gram atau seperduapuluh tahil maka satu tahil sama dengan 20 tahil. Satuan yang lebih berat untuk mengukur barang-barang terutama yang dibebankan di atas pundak diistilahkan dengan bantal yang ukurannya sama dengan 20 tahil lebih berat lagi adalah pikul yang sama dengan lima kali bantal atau 100 kati atau sekitar 75 kg.       Mengukur intrinsik mata uang, sejauh yang diceritakan prasasti ada yang terbuat dari logam emas dan perak dengan satuan yang disebut suwarna (emas) dan dharana (perak). Sejalan artikatanya suwarna (= emas) dan dharana (= perak) keduanya merupakan istilah dari kosakata bahasa Sanskerta. Ukuran emas dan perak dengan bobot 2,4 gram sama dengan 1/16 tahil/ suwarna/ dharana sedangkan satuan lainnya yang lebih kecil adalah atak (=1,2 gram) kerap disebut ½ masa, kupang bernilai 0,6 gram (=¼ masa;) dan saga. Majapahit mengenal picis untuk istilah mata uang tembaga yang diperkirakan pengaruh Cina sebagai ukuran terendah untuk membayar pajak dan denda-denda khusus. 100 picis (=1 kupang/ sakupang), 200 picis (=1 atak/satak), 400 picis (1 masa/ samasa) dan 800 picis (2 masa/domas), 1000 picis (1 tali,), 10.000 picis (1 laksa/salaksa) 100.000 picis (=satu keti /saketi) .       Prasasti dan sumber tertulis lainnya sedikit memberi keterangan tentang aktifitas produksi yang dilakukan pada masa lalu, Jikalau ada, keterangan itu lebih didasarkan atas penafsiran dari barang-barang produksi yang tampak pada prasasti maupun relief candi dan data arkeologi lainnya. Meskipun secara garis besar jenis hasil produksi dapat dikelompokan ke dalam kategori bahan makanan, pakaian dan perhiasan, peralatan rumah tangga, alat kerja dan mungkin barang-barang langka (dari pedagang asing). Karena dalam salah satu prasasti masa Majapahit (Madhawapura) disebut beberapa benda yang dipakai raja seperti payung dari kain sutra putih (amagot payung pinghe) dan diketahui sutra merupakan produksi dari Cina dan satwa langka.        Pakaian atau bahan pakaian umumnya berupa kain lepas dinyatakan dengan wdihan (biasanya untuk laki-laki) dinyatakan istilah dengan sayugala (sepasang) dan untuk perempuan adalah kain/ken yang dinyatakan dengan sawlah (sebelah) dengan aneka jenis dan coraknya. Berdasarkan prasasti terdapat 11 jenis kain. Juga perhiasan terutama sisim (cincin) dengan motif prasada atau berpahatkan tulisan sri atau sramana, hiasan cakra dan kumbha yang umum ditemukan merujuk semacam “cincin stempel”. Kalung , pelbagai batu mulia untuk perhiasan erat kaitannya dengan para pandai (pandai mas, pandai salaka) sekaligus pengrajin (limus galuh, pamanikan, mangrumban). Juga barang-barang yang memiliki nilai jual cukup tinggi di pasaran internasional seperti gandharusa (myrrh) kemenyan (frankincence), kayu cendana dan rotan termasuk komoditi (ekspor), dan hewan (yang “dianggap” langka waktu itu) seperti burung kakak tua, dan badak (cula).        Peralatan rumah tangga yang dijual sebagian besar dihasilkan oleh kelompok pengrajin dan para pandai logam, pengrajin gerabah dan undahagi, penganyam khususnya jenis wadah. Prasasti menyebut dang, anyaman, saragi paganganan (seperangkat wadah untuk masakan berkuah), saragi pangliwetan (seperangkat wadah untuk memasak nasi), saragi inuman (seperangkat wadah untuk minum), padyussan (tempat mandi), talam (baki), buri (bejana), saragi pewakan (seperangkat wadah untuk memindang ikan). Demikian halnya peralatan kerja meliputi berbagai alat yang kerap dipakai istilah saprakaraning wsi atau wsi-wsi prakara (segala sesuatu benda yang terbuat dari besi) sebagian besar adalah alat-alat pertukangan tetapi juga membangun rumah, mengolah sawah ladang maupun untuk alat rumah tangga.        Produksi perdagangan yang disebutkan dinyatakan dalam transaksi jual beli baik di pasar-pasar lokal (pkan) mengikuti sistem pertanggalan yang dilaksanakan lima hari dalam seminggu (pancawara: umanis, pahing, pwan/pon, wagai/wage, kaliwuan/ kaliwon) siklus yang berkaitan dengan sistem penataan desa-desa (panyatur dan pangasta desa) atau mancapat. Oleh orang Jawa disebut sepasar atau sepasaran dan yang paling ramai biasanya umanis. Aktivitas Perdagangan         Secara garis besar Jawa Timur tumbuh sebagai bagian dari jalur perdagangan internasional sangat terkait dengan kegiatan perkembangan perdagangan di kawasan Asia Tenggara pada umumnya. Namun alasan paling logis adalah kondisi geografis Jawa Timur yang sangat memadai terutama peranan kota-kota pantai yang secara integratif ditunjang aliran-aliran besar (mainstream) yang berfungsi menghubungkan daerah-daerah pedalaman dan kota-kota pantai dalam berbagai kegiatan. Beberapa aliran besar yang mempunyai fungsi integratif antara perdagangan, agama, politik, dan kebudayaan mendorong daerah-daerah ke arah integrasi aktivitas perdagangan adalah kekuasaan politik. Dikala itu selat Madura dan sekitarnya merupakan laut keluarga “The Familie Sea” , lalu lintas pelayaran dan perdagangan laut dan sekaligus menghubungkan bagian barat dan timur Nusantara. Jalur ini merupakan jalur simpang dari jalur pokok perdagangan laut tradisional yang membentang dari laut Jawa ke timur dan ternyata dipergunakan sebagai jalur perluasan kekuasaan politik, penyebaran agama dan kebudayaan.       Di tepi jalur laut ini tumbuh kota-kota pantai bagian timur pulau Jawa a.l. Tuban, Sedayu, Gresik, [Pa]jaratan dan Surabaya. Di perairan Gresik jalur perdagangan laut dari barat membelah dua arah, pertama cabang jalur ke arah timur melalui pantai utara pulau Madura; sedangkan cabang jalur kedua menyeberangi selat Madura dan bertemu dengan cabang pertama selanjutnya mengarah ke timur menuju kepulauan Maluku dengan atau tanpa melewati pulau-pulau yang termasuk kawasan Sunda kecil itu (Nusa Tenggara). Bahkan, komunikasi kota-kota pantai di kawasan sekitar selat Madura sampai akhir abad ke 18 lebih mudah dilakukan melalui jalur laut daripada jalur darat.       Jalur sungai sangat berperanan penting dalam mengembangkan kota-kota pantai kawasan ini serta menghubungkan daerah pedalaman dengan kota-kota pantai yang kemudian tumbuh sebagai bandar. Terlebih lagi di Jawa Timur terdapat dua sungai besar yakni Bengawan Solo dan Bangawas (Sungai Brantas) termasuk anak-anak sungainya pada musim pasang dapat dilayari oleh perahu-perahu merupakan jalur lalu lintas perdagangan cukup ramai. Dari segi ekonomi penguasaan politik daerah-daerah pantai di sekitar kawasan pantai utara Jawa Timur memiliki arti penguasaan sumber-sumber hasil (komoditi) baik berupa produksi agraris maupun maritim.         Pada prakteknya, pihak pusat menuntut pengakuan kesetiaan berupa penyerahan upeti, pajak, dan tenaga disalurkan kepada wakil-wakil raja (Rakryan, Bhratara), sebagian digunakan sebagai penghasilan juga untuk menjalankan pemerintahan. Hubungan antara kota pantai dan pedalaman menunjukkan peranan saling mendukung seperti kesuburan tanah, sarana transportasi, komoditi dan lain sebagainya. Dijelaskan bahwa jerih payah kota [pantai] dirasakan oleh penduduk pedalaman (desa) distribusi barang barang “impor” keperluan hidup ditangani pihak [kota] pantai. Sebaliknya penyediaan barang-barang kerajinan seperti alat-alat pertanian, perkakas rumah tangga, barang pecah belah (alat-alat rumah tangga sehari-hari) dan sebagainya ditangani penduduk desa. Aktivitas perdagangan di masa lampau merupakan hubungan antara pedalaman pantai sebagai symbiotic relation – saling membutuhkan dan saling tergantung.       Dari segi politis hubungan perdagangan sangat mungkin meluas hingga ke wilayah lebih timur yakni Bali seperti ternyata pada prasasti Buyan-Sanding-Tamblingan (l970); The Charter of Kapal (l977) dan Astasura- Ratna-Bhumi-Banten (l981) yang membuktikan kontak antara Jawa – Bali telah berlangsung sejak Mataram (Hindu) I Jawa Tengah. Jikalau Rakai Mataram Sang Ratu Sanjaya yang dapat dianggap sebagai the founder of Mataram (prasasti Gunung Wukir 732, Sragen abad ke-8 dan Mantyasih 907) itu pernah menaklukan Bali. Juga prasasti Kubu-Kubu (905) dari Rakai Watukura Dyah Balitung menyebutkan tentang penaklukan terhadap Bantan (sebutan halus [krama] dari Bali). Untuk kesekian kalinya pada tahun 1284 Jawa melakukan ekspedisi ke Bali (Krtanagara) disusul ekspedisi Gajah Mada tahun 1343. Suatu bukti bahwa Jawa-Bali telah demikian erat terjalin sejak masa Mataram awal. Penguasaan politis tersebut secara langsung juga penguasaan perdagangan oleh pihak Mataram, selain Madura daerah Nusa Tenggara lainnya khususnya Bali (Bantan).         Para pedagang terdiri dari berbagai kelompok yakni pedagang setempat dan pedagang asing. Pedagang setempat adalah mereka yang berprofesi dagang menjadi warga masyarakat Jawa yang datang dari suatu desa atau kota tertentu dengan jangkauan wilayah dagang terbatas pada wilayahnya sendiri (pedagang lokal) sejumlah wilayah desa atau kota sekaligus (pedagang regional) hingga ke luar wilayah kerajaan (pedagang internasional). Prasasti menyebutkan pedagang asing yang berasal dari Daratan Asia, antara lain sumber tertua dari prasasti Kuti (804) menyebut nama-nama pedagang asing dari negeri Cempa (Champa), Kling (Keling-India?) Haryya (Arya), Singhala (?), Goda (Gauda/ Benggala), Cwalika, Malyala, Karnnake, Remon/ Ramman (Mon), dan Kmir (Khmer). Prasasti Kancana (860) menyebut adanya Juru Cina. Prasasti Kaladi (909) dan prasasti Palebuhan (927) muncul pedagang asing yang disebut Drawida dan Pandikira.        Dari penyebutan namanya dapat dikatakan bahwa sebagian besar dari pedagang asing tersebut berasal dari Asia Selatan dan Asia Timur (Champa dan Khmer) . Bahkan prasasti Cane (1012), prasasti Patakan menyebut Juru Keling yakni ketua orang-orang keling. Istilah ini telah ada sejak abad ke 10 yakni dalam prasasti Barsahan (910) sementara itu Dalam karya sastra Nagarakretagama (1365) disebutkan sejumlah besar kelompok pedagang asing yang juga turut hadir dan diundang pada pesta perayaan tahunan kerajaan Majapahit, mereka datang berkendaraan potra (perahu) diantaranya Siam (Syangka, Ayodhyapura, Dharmmanagari, Rajapura), Myamar (Marutma), Champa (Campa, Singha nagari), Annam, Kamboja (Yawana), India Utara (Jambhudwipa), India Timur (Goda), India Selatan (Kanchipura, Karnnataka) dan Cina.         Berita Cina dari Ma Huan (1433) mencatat pelabuhan-pelabuhan utama pantai utara Jawa terdapat kelompok pedagang Islam dan pedagang Cina diantaranya ada yang berperan sebagai penguasa pelabuhan Tuban, Gresik, dan Surabaya. Tome Pires memberitakan bahwa pelabuhan-pelabuhan terpenting pantai utara Jawa dikuasai para pedagang Islam. Sejumlah data prasasti menyiratkan pedagang setempat melakukan aktivitas dalam skala lokal menyediakan barang-barang kebutuhan yang cenderung tidak tahan lama. Pedagang dengan wilayah jangkauan desa menyediakan barang yang lebih tahan lama dan yang tidak selalu tersedia di setiap wilayah seperti garam, alat-alat rumah tangga (wadah-wadah tanah liat, alat-alat logam, dan perabot kayu) juga pakaian. Pedagang internasional terutama menjual barang-barang setempat atau dari tempat lain (diekspor lagi) yang memiliki nilai tinggi dan tidak dihasilkan atau tidak tersedia dalam jumlah mencukupi negeri yang hendak dituju (beras, pakaian, barang-barang, rempah-rempah, satwa [unik], mutiara, tumbuhan, obat-obatan). Pedagang yang melakukan aktifitas hingga ke luar wilayah kerajaan kembali dengan membawa barang-barang berkualitas tinggi yang banyak dibutuh-kan di negrinya yaitu Jawa.         Disebutkan bahwa pedagang asing adalah pedagang warga negara asing yang melakukan aktivitas perdagangan ke wilayah Jawa. Kelompok pedagang asing terdiri dari mereka yang berasal dari wilayah kepulauan Nusantara dan yang berasal dari daratan Asia. Pedagang dari wilayah Nusantara umumnya tidak disebutkan secara eksplisit asal daerahnya namun kehadirannya dapat disimpulkan secara tidak langsung dari sumber-sumber prasasti. Antara lain prasasti berbahasa Melayu Kuno antara lain prasasti Gondosuli II (827) menyebutkan adanya seorang tokoh yang bergelar Dang Puhawang Glis. Puhawang artinya nakhoda atau kapten kapal dagang, ternyata abad ke 9 di kerajaan Mataram ada komunitas Malayu. Jaringan Pedalaman dan Pantai         Telah disebutkan bahwa peranan pedalaman (hinterland) bagi berkembangnya kota pantai turut menentukan. Dalam hubungan ini yang paling berperan adalah jalur-jalur baik jalur darat maupun jalur sungai yang memungkinkan terlaksananya hubungan antara daerah pedalaman dan kota, antara kota dan desa sekitarnya dan antara satu kota dengan kota lainnya.       Jaringan yang dilalui kegiatan perdagangan Jawa Timur di masa lalu tidak secara nyata disebutkan melainkan ada jalur-jalur yang menghubungkan antara satu daerah pedalaman dengan daerah pedalaman lainnya hingga menuju ke pantai sebagaimana telah disebutkan dalam prasasti Kamalagyan . Dikukuhkannya desa Kamalagyan sebagai salah satu sima menunjukkan arti penting guna transportasi sehari -hari maupun kegiatan perdagangan. Desa Kamalagyan sebagai desa penting untuk perdagangan (karena letaknya di tepi sungai Brantas) masih disebut di dalam prasasti Waringin Pitu (l447) juga sebaliknya. Di dalam prasasti Waringin Pitu, desa Kamalagyan disebut diantara desa Sarba (Serbo), Beron (Beron), Panumbangan (Penambangan), Sadang (Sadang), Pakambingan (Kambing), Kamalagen (Klagen), sebaliknya prasasti Kamalagyan menyebut Waringin Pitu diantara desa-desa lainnya dengan istilah Waringin Sapta. Sampai sekarang desa ini masih bernama Wringinpitu terletak di tepi selatan sungai Brantas dekat Krian-Sidoarjo. Prasasti Kamalagyan 1037 (Airlangga) melukiskan “betapa para nakhoda dan pedagang yang datang dari berbagai Nusantara (para puhawang para-banyaga sangka ring dwipantara...) sangat sukacita tatkala sungai Brantas diperbaiki dan dapat dilayari hingga menuju Hujung Galuh”. Desa Kamalagyan kini adalah Klagen terletak di tepi timur Kali Brantas. Jikalau kedua desa ini disebutkan pada masa Majapahit maka dapat dikatakan Waringin Pitu dan Klagen merupakan daerah terpenting selama berabad-abad sebagai daerah-daerah yang langsung berkait dengan aktivitas perdagangan, terutama sebagai jalur transportasi air dari pedalaman ke kota pantai. Namun sekurang-kurangnya kedua prasasti itu merupakan peluang guna menelusuri jalan perdagangan (transportasi) menuju Hujung Galuh.        Tumbuhnya kota-kota pelabuhan di sepanjang pantai utara Jawa bagian timur cukup menunjukkan bahwa kegiatan politik, budaya maupun perdagangan laut lebih banyak berlangsung kawasan Jawa Timur. Beberapa sumber lebih muda seperti kidung Harsawijaya dan Pararaton menyebut pengiriman ekspedisi kerajaan Singhasari ke tanah Malayu berangkat dari bandar (pelabuhan) Tuban, peristiwa tersebut terjadi pada tahun 1275. Senada dengan berita Cina dari dinasti Yuan di dalam hubungan dengan pengiriman ekspedisi militer ke Jawa Timur pada abad ke-13 menyebutkan bandar-banda penting di Jawa Timur (Tuban dan Canggu).         Catatan perjalanan Tome Pires pada dasa warsa ke dua abad ke 15-16 menyebut serentetan bandar-bandar penting sepanjang pantai utara Jawa a.l. Cheroboan (Cirebon), Locarj (Losari), Tetegual (Tegal), Cedayu (Sedayu), Agaciy (Gresik), Curubaya (Surabaya), Gamda (Garuda), Pajarujam (Pajarakan) dan Panarunca (panarukan). Peran Selat Madura dalam perdagangan laut Jawa Timur tidak dapat dilepaskan sebagai “The Familie Sea” .         Perlu diterangkan bahwa kondisi alam daerah pedalaman yang sangat subur ini sangat membantu perkembangan bandar-bandar terutama lembah sepanjang Bengawan Sala sebagai penghasil beras dan hasil bumi lainnya yang melimpah, sehingga mampu menjadi barang dagang ekspor. Juga sepanjang pegunungan Kendeng yang membentang dari barat ke timur merupakan hutan kayu jati yang lebat dan berkualitas, produksi ini dikirim ke Tuban, Gresik dan Surabaya. Tatkala jalan darat yang menghubungkan daerah masih dalam kondisi belum memadai maka jalur sungai lebih mudah dilalui dan Bengawan Sala sangat berperan sebagai jalur utama mengangkut komoditi perdagangan hingga ke ujung pelabuhan (hujunggaluh).        Berita asing (VOC) pernah melacak jalur perdagangan penting yang menghubungkan pantai utara Jawa dengan daerah pedalaman yang berperan sebagai feeder point ataupun yang pernah diperkirakan pernah menghasilkan komoditi perdagangan. Dari Klagen ke arah timur terdapat sungai Purboyo yang bersebarangan dengan desa Seketi Kidul, selanjutnya desa Guyangan, Kepuhsari dan Gagang yang terletak kurang lebih 1.3 km dari selatan Wringin Pitu. Lebih ke timur terletak Waru Beron (1 km sebelah baratdaya Wringin Pitu) kemudian menuju selatan melalui desa Segodo Ageng (prasasti: Lagada).         Sementara dari arah utara memasuki Surabaya berturut-turut melewati Prambon, Sedayu, Bungah, Gresik– Surabaya – terus ke Wonokromo, Sidoarjo dan Porong. Menuju arah selatan masuk ke Pasuruan melewati Gempol, Bangil, Gempeng Bendungan, Kraton, - Pasuruan – Rajasa menuju Grati. Selanjutnya ke timur memasuki Besuki dengan melalui Banyuanget, Mandingan, Bungatan, Panarukan, Situbondo menuju ke Sumberwaru. Jalan dari Sumberwaru ke Bujulmati agak sulit dilalui karena merupakan areal hutan tetapi Bujulmati adalah arah menuju Banyuwangi setelah melewati desa Watudodol. Kegiatan Perdagangan Pantai Utara Jawa : Sintesa Berdasarkan Data Sumber Tertulis http://www.wacananusantara.org/3/464/kegiatan-perdagangan-pantai-utara-jawa http://wisatadanbudaya.blogspot.com/2010/02/kegiatan-perdagangan-pantai-utara-jawa.html