KLASIFIKASI OBAT GUBAL - CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS There are following methods of classification. 1. Alphabetic method of classification 2. Chemical method of classification. 3. Pharmacological method of classification. 4. Morphological method of classification. 5. Taxonomical method of classification. 6. Chemo-taxonomical method of classification. 1. Alphabetic Method of Classification In this method drugs are classified according to first alphabet of their English or Latin name. This method is adopted in many books like I. P. (Indian Pharmacopoeia) N.P. (National formulary) U.S (United states Pharmacopoeia), B.P. In I.P.1955 drugs where given according to Latin name. In I. P. 1966 names changed in to English. Amylum changed in to starch Acacia changed in to Indian gum. Advantages If we know the name of drug, we can study it properly. 2. Chemical Method of Classification Drugs are classified according to their active chemical constituent. Drugs which contain similar chemical are grouped in one place. Chemical Content Drugs 1. Volatile oil Fennel oil, coriander. 2. Alkaloid Rauwolfia, Datura Nuxvomica, Cinchona, and Vinca. 3. Glycoside Senna leaf, Digitalis. 4. Fixed oil& fat Arachis oil, sesame oil, castor oil. 5. Carbohydrates Acacia, Honey, starch, Isapgol. 6. Vitamins Shark liver oil, cod liver oil wheat, Germ oil, Amla. 7. Lipid Castor oil, peanut oil, mustard, and wool fat. Disadvantages 1. This method does not give any idea about source of drug. 2. Some drugs contain two important chemicals so it is difficult to classify them. e. g. Nutmeg contains volatile oil as well as fat. Cinchona contains glycoside as well as alkaloid. 3. No idea whether drug is organized or unorganized. Advantages If we know chemical constituent. It is easy to study the drug. 3. Pharmacological Classification The drugs having similar pharmacological effect in body are grouped together. Pharmacological Action Drug 1. Carminatives Fennel, Dill, Coriander, and Clove. 2. Purgatives Cascara- sagrada, Aloe, Senna, and Rhubarb. 3. Cardio tonics Digitalis, squill, and strophanthus. 4. Anthelmintic Artemisia, Male-fern, and Quassia. 5. Anti- cancer Podophyllum, Vinca. 6. CNS Stimulant Nuxvomica. 7. Expectorant Vasaka, Liquoric. 8. Bitter tonic Gentian, Cinchona, and Nux vomica. Disadvantages 1. Some crude drugs have two different pharmacological actions therefore it is difficult to classify them. e.g. Nux-vomica is CNS stimulant as well as bitter tonic. Cinchona is bitter tonic as well as Antimalarial & Antipyretic. 2. Drugs that have different mechanism of action have to be grouped together. e. g. Castor oil is irritant purgative & Isapgol is bulk purgative but they are placed in one group. 3. No idea whether drugs are organized or unorganized. 4. This method does not give any idea of source of drugs. Advantages If we know pharmacological action it is easy to study the drug. 4. Morphological Classification In this method drugs are divided into parts of plants like, Roots, Flowers, Leaves, Wood, Extracts, Gum, Bark. Part of Plant Drugs Fruit Caraway, Fennel. Seed Nuxvomica, Nutmeg, colchicum. Bark Arjuna, Cinchona, cinnamon. Gum Acacia, Tragacanth, Streculia, and Guargum. Latex Opium, Papaya. Extract Catechu, Agar, and gelatin. Leaf Coca, Digitalis, Senna, and Vasaka. Advantages 1. It is more convenient for practical purpose. 2. Even if the chemical content or action of drug is not known the drug can be studied properly. 3. It gives idea about source of drugs 4. It gives idea whether it is organized / unorganized. Disadvantages During collection, drying & packing morphology of drug changes. They are difficult to study. 5. Taxonomical Classification It is purely biological classification. Drugs are given according to position of plant in plant kingdom. It is difficult system. Disadvantage  No idea about organized / unorganized. Fennel Division - Angiosperm. Class - Dicotyledonae Order - Umbelliflorae. Family - Umbelliferae. Example - Fennel. 6. Chemo taxonomical This is recent type of classification in which equal importances have been given to family of plant & it's chemical constituents. It has been found that there is closed relationship between chemical composition of the plant and its position in plant kingdom. Ex. plants of Umbeliferae contain volatile oil, plants of Solanaceae, Apocyanaceae contain alkaloid.   Pharmacognosy is defined as scientific & systematic study of structural, physical,chemical & biological characters of crude drugs along with history, method of cultivation, collection & preparation for the market. Crude Drugs are the drugs, which are obtained form natural sources like plant. Animals , minerals & they are used as such as they occur in nature without any processing except, drying & size reduction. Source Example Vegetable Source Fennel, Dill, Clove and Senna Animal Source Honey, Bees wax, Shark liver Oil Mineral Source Talc, Chalk, Bentonite 1) Work of Seydler Seydler was German scientist he wrote a book " Analecta Pharmacognistica " in 1815. In this book he used word pharmacognosy first time he coined (to Prepare) this word by combining two Greek words. 1) Pharmakon: - Drug  2) Gignosco: - To acquire knowledge of 2)  Work of Galen (131 - 200) Galen was Greek pharmacist; he worked on extraction of chemical constituent from the plants. He developed various methods of extraction therefore the branch of pharmacy which deals with extraction of chemical constituent from plants & animals is called as galenical Pharmacy. 3) Hippocrates (460 - 360. B.C.) Before the birth of Jesus. He was Greek scientist; he worked on human anatomy & Physiology Particularly on circulatory system & nervous system. He prepared famous oath for physicians, which is still taken by the physicians. He is known as father of medicine. 4) Indian History Of Pharmacognosy It is about 5500 years old, in the suktas of Rigveda & Atharwaveda medicinal property of plant is given. There are several medicinal plants, which are given with there use. The old Ayurveda Books, Charak samhita & Sushrutsamtita described many medicinal plants. 5) Traditional Indian System of medicine (Indigenous)i. g. old system. a) Ayurveda: The old system of treatment in India. It is 5500 years old. Ayurveda believes there are 3 principles  Kappa. Kapha is formed from Earth and Water and is the energy that forms the body's structure--bones, muscles, tendons--and provides the "glue" that holds the cells together. Kapha supplies the water for all bodily parts and systems. It lubricates joints, moisturizes the skin, and maintains immunity. In balance, kapha is expressed as love, calmness and forgiveness. Out of balance, it leads to attachment, greed and envy. Life presents us with many challenges and opportunities. Although there is much over which we have little control, we do have the power to decide about some things, like our diet and lifestyle. To maintain balance and health, it is important to pay attention to these decisions. Diet and lifestyle appropriate to one's individual constitution strengthen the body, mind and consciousness. When you experience symptoms such as nausea, lethargy, a feeling of heaviness, chills, looseness of the limbs, coughing, mucus discharges, breathing difficulties, and a tendency to sleep too much, you may be suffering from Kapha imbalance. Other symptoms can be inertia, congestion, stagnation, and circulation problems. There may be a tendency toward obesity. Boredom, laziness, and mental dullness may be present. Indications of balanced kapha influences are physical strength, a strong immune system, serenity, mental resolve, rational thinking, ability to conserve and use personal resources, endurance, and adaptability. http://www.derbyhypnotherapy.com/ayurveda.html Vata. In the physical body, vata--composed of Space and Air--is the subtle energy associated with movement. It governs breathing, blinking, muscle and tissue movement, pulsation of the heart, and all movements in the cytoplasm and cell membranes. In balance, vata promotes creativity and flexibility. Out of balance, vata produces fear and anxiety. If you are suffering from anxiety, worry, a tendency to overexertion, insomnia, chronic tiredness, mental and emotional depression, physical tension and other symptoms of stress, a weakened immune system, headaches, underweight, constipation, skin dryness, mental confusion, emotional conflict, inability to make decisions, impulsiveness, fast and disconnected speech, fantasy, illusions, and sensations of being light-hearted and removed from thoughts, feelings, or circumstances, then there is a very good sign that your vata is aggravated. Indications of balanced vata influences are mental alertness and abundance of creative energy, good elimination of waste matters from the body, sound sleep, a strong immune system, enthusiasm, emotional balance, and orderly functioning of the body's systems. http://www.derbyhypnotherapy.com/ayurveda.html Pitta. Pitta, made up of Fire and Water, expresses as the body's metabolic system. It governs digestion, absorption, assimilation, nutrition, metabolism and body temperature. In balance, pitta promotes understanding and intelligence. Out of balance, pitta arouses anger, hatred and jealousy. When you experience symptoms such as, excessive body heat, digestive problems, a tendency to be hostile or angry and controlling, impatience, a tendency to exert excessive effort to achieve goals, vision difficulties, and being prone to make errors in judgment because of mental confusion or because passion or emotion blurs powers of intellectual discernment, there is a good possibility that you are suffering from pitta imbalance. Indications of balanced pitta influences are strong powers of digestion, vitality, goal-setting inclinations, good problem-solving skills, keen powers of intelligence, decisiveness, boldness and courage, and a bright complexion. http://www.derbyhypnotherapy.com/ayurveda.html Which are responsible to maintain health. If their equilibrium is disturbed persons suffers from diseases. Ayurveda cures the cause of disease. The principles of positive health and therapeutic measures embedded in this system relate to mental, physical, social and spiritual welfare of human beings. Drugs of Ayurveda are obtained mostly from plants. Dosage of Ayurveda are  Bhasma (oxides of metals) Quath (extracts) Gutika (pills) Lep (ointment) Asava & Arishtha (Alcohol containing liquids.) Powder Medicated oils.  There are eight braches of Ayurveda. Kayachikitsa (Internal medicine) Kumarbhritya (pediatrics) Trachchikitsa (psychological medicine) Shalakya Tantra [(CENT) Ears, Nose & throat] Shalya Tantra (surgery) Agada tantra (toxicology) Rasayana tantra (geriatrics- medicines for the old persons) Vajikaran tantra [Aphrodisiacs, drugs which are sexual stimulants.] b. Sidha System of Medicine. The "Siddhas" developed the Sidha system of medicine (Spiritual persons). It is old than ' Vedic culture ' it belongs to Dravidian culture. Like Ayurveda the medicines are prepared from plants. The literature of this system is given in Tamil Language. Like Ayurveda it believes that all objects in universe, are made from 5. Elements. 1) Earth. 2) Water. 3) Sky. 4) Air. & 5) Fire Diseases are identified by examination of pulse, voice, colour, of urine, tongue, and shadow. Etc. The books are written in Tamil. c. Naturopathy & yoga. Naturopathy is not only a system of treatment but it also teaches the way of living. In naturopathy use of soil & water is important in treatment of diseases mudpacks & steam baths are used. Fasting is also used to treat diseases. Yoga consists of two parts Exercises (physical postures)  Improves blood circulation in the body.  Meditation consists of   breathing exercise observance of austerity physical postures restraining of sense organ contemplation meditation samadhi. This system helps us to improve physical, mental & social health. It improves personal behavior of the person. DEFINITIONS 1) CarminativeThe Agent, which expels gases from G. I. tract, is known as carminative. e. g. Fennel, Dill, Caraway 2) ExpectorantThe drug / agent which increases Fluidity of cough & helps in easy removal of cough are known as expectorant.  e. g. Vasaka, Tolu-balsam, Benzoin. 3) PurgativeThe drug which evacuate the bowl  e. g. Senna leaf, Castor oil,  Rhubarb. 4) LaxativeThese are the purgatives, which have mild action. e. g. senna 5) CatharticThese are drastic purgative stools produced are watery in nature. e.g. Castor oil, Rhubarb. 6) AnalgesicThe drugs which relieves pain by acting on Central Nervous System. They are of two types I) Narcotic Analgesics e. g. Opium II) Antipyretic Analgesics e. g. Aconite 7) AntipyreticThe drug, which reduces, elevated body temp. e. g. Cinchona bark 8) DiaphoreticDrug, which reduces, elevated body temperature by increasing rate of sweating. e. g. Tulsi, Camphor Tulsi, Camphor 9) DiureticThe drug, which increases rate of Formation & excretion of urine, is known as diuretic. e. g. Tea, Buchu leaves 10) EmeticThe drug which produces vomiting. e. g. Mustard, Ipecac Senega. 11) FebrifugeThe drug which reduces the body temperature. 12) HypnoticThe drug which produces sleep, like Natural sleep, is known as Hypnotic e. g. Opium 13) Sedative The drug, which lowers activity of any organ or central Nervous System, is known as sedative. (Tranquillizer.) 14) OxytocicThe drug which causes contraction of uterus. e. g. Ergot 15) AnthelminticThe drug, which kills or expels, worms from G. I. T. e. g. Santonica flower, Chenopodium oil. 16) AppetizerThe drug which increases desire for food e. g. Cinchona, Nux-vomica. 17) AphrodisiacAn agent which stimulate sexual desire e. g. lahsun. 18) Bitter Bitters are drugs having bitter taste, due to bitter taste they stimulate nerves and stimulate secretion of stomach and appetite.[S1] e.g. Cinchona, Nux vomica. 19) Counter irritant Counter irritant is a substance, which when applied is externally produces irritation. This irritation is mild in nature, this irritation reduce the original pain sensation. e. g. Camphor, Turpentine oil, methyl salicylate. 20) Stomachic The drug, which increases secretion of gastric juice & function of stomach, digestion is known as stomachic e. g. Fennel, Dill, Gentian. http://jayashankarpharmacology.blogspot.com/2011/01/classification-of-crude-drugs.html

CLASSIFICATION OF CRUDE DRUGS The term "Crude-Drugs" generally applies to the products of plants and animal oirgin found in raw form and pharmaceutical products from mineral origin and not necessrily only the organic ones such as kaoline, bentonite, etc. Crude drugs are further grouped as ORGANISED (CELLULAR) or UNORGANISED (NON-CELLULAR) according to whether they contain a regularly organised cellular structure or not. ALPHABETICAL CLASSIFICATION: Crude drugs are arranged according to thier latin or english names alphabetically: Indian Pharmacopoeia. British Pharmacopoeia. United States Pharmacopoeia & National Formulary. British Herbal Pharmacopoeia. British Pharmaceutical Codex. European Pharmacopoeia (Latin Titles). Encyclopedia of common Natural ingredients used in Drugs and cosmetics. e.g.: Acacia, benzoin, cinchona, dill, ergot, fennel, gentian, hyoscyamus, ipecacuanha, jalap, kurchi, liquorice, myrrh, Nux-vomica, opium, podophyllum, quassia, rauwolfia, senna, uncaria gambier, vasaka, wool fat, yellow bees wax, zedoary. 2. TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION: The drugs are classified according to plants or animals from which they are obtained in Phyla, Orders, Families, Genera, Species, Sub-species, etc.  This system of classification is criticised for its failure to recognize the organized and unorganized nature of crude drugs and chemical nature of active constituents and therapeutic significance of crude drugs Phylum - Spermatophyta Division - Angiospermae Class - Dicotyledons Order - Rosales Family - Leguminosae Sub-family - Papilionaceae Genus - Glycyrrhiza, Astragalus, Myroxylon Species - Glycyrrhiza glabra, Astragalus gummifer, Myroxylon balsamum. Phylum - Spermatophyta Division - Angiospermae Class - Dicotyledons Sub-class - Sympetalae Order - Tubiflorae Family - Solanaceae Genus - Atropa, Hyoscyamus, Datura Species - Atropa belladona, Hyoscyamus niger, Datura stramonium 3. MORPHOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION: The crude drugs are grouped according to the parts of the plants or animal represented into organised and unorganised drugs. Seeds - nux-vomica, strophanthus, isabgol, castor Leaves - senna, digitalis, vasaka, eucalyptus Barks - cinchona, kurchi, cinnamom, quaillia Woods - quassia, sandalwood, red-sanders Roots - rauwolfia, ipecacuanha, aconite, jalap Rhizomes - turmeric, ginger, valerian, podophyllum Flowers - clove, pyrethrum, saffron, artemisia Fruits - coriander, colocynth, fennel, bael Entire drugs- ephedra, ergot, cantharides, belladonna Dried latices- opium, gutta-percha, papain Resins & resin combinations - balsam of tolu, myrrh, asafoetida, benzoin Dried juices - aloes, kino, red gum Gums - acacia, tragacanth, ghatti gum, guar gum Dried extracts-gelatin, catechu, agar, curare This system of classifcation is more convenient for practical study; especially when the chemical nature of the crude drug is not clearly understood. 4. CHEMICAL CLASSIFICATION; The crude drugs are divided into different groups according to the chemical nature of their most important constituents. Glycosides - Digitalis, senna, cascara, liqourice Alkaloids - Nux--vomica, ergot, cinchona, datura Tannins - Myrobalan, pale catechu, ashoka Volatile - Peppermint, clove, eucalyptus, garlic oils Lipids - Castor oil, bees wax, lanolin, cod liver oil, kokum butter Carbohydrates - Acacia, agar, guar gum, pectin, honey, & derivatives isapghula Resins & resin - Colophony, jalap, Balsam of Tolu derivatives Vitamins & - Yeast, Shark liver oil, Oxytocin, Hormones insulin Proteins & - casein, gelatin, papain, trypsin Enzymes The chemical classification of crude drugs seem to be the preferred method of study, since therapeutic and pharamcological significance is based on the chemical composition of crude drugs. 5. PHARMACOLOGICAL (THERAPEUTIC) CLASSIFICATION: This system of classification involoves the grouping of crude drugs according to the pharmacological action of their active constituents or their therapeutic uses, regardlesss of their morphology, taxonomical status, or chemical relationships. The drugs differing in mechanism of action but having same pharmacological effects are also grouped together, e.g. bulk purgatives, irritant purgatives, emollient purgatives etc. DRUGS ACTING ON GASTRO-INTESTINAL TRACT: Bitters - Gentian, Quassia, Cinchona Carminatives - Dill, Mentha, Cardamom Emetics - Ipecacuanha Anti-amoebics - Kurchi, Ipecauanha Bulk laxatives - Agar, Isapghula, Banana Purgatives - Senna, Castor oil Peptic ulcer - Derivatives of Glycyrrhitinic acid treatment ( Liqourice and Raw banana) DRUGS ACTING ON RESPIRATORY SYSTEM: Expectorant - Liqourice, Ipecacuanha, Vasaka Antiexpectorant - Stramonium leaves (Atropine) Antitussives - Opium (Codeine, Noscapine) Brochodilators - Ephedra, Tea (Theophylline) DRUGS ACTING ON CARDIO-VASCULAR SYSTEMS: Cardiotonics - Digitalis, Squill, Strophanthus Cardiac depressants - Cinchona (quinidine), Veratrum Vaso-constrictors - Ergot (ergotamine), Ephedra Antihypertensives - Rauwolfia DRUGS ACTING ON AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEMS: Adrenergics - Ephedra Cholinergics - Physostima, Pilocarpus Anticholinergics - Belladona, Datura DRUGS ACTING ON CNS: Central analgesics - Opium (morphine) CNS Stimulants - Coffee ( caffeine) Analeptics - Nux-vomica, Lobelia, Camphor CNS depressants - Hyoscyamus, Belladonna, opium, Hellucinogenics - Cannabis, Poppy Latex ANTISPASMODICS: Smooth Muscle Relaxants - Opium, Datura, Hyoscyamus Skeletal Muscle Relaxants - Curare ANTICANCER: Vinca, Podophyllum, Taxus, Camptotheca ANTIRHEUMATICS:  Aconite, Colchicum, Guggul ASTRINGENTS: Myrobalan, Black Catechu 6. CHEMOTAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION: The character most often studied in chemotaxonomy are secondary metabolites of pharmaceutical significance such as alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, etc. DNA hybridization, amino acid sequencing in proteins, and serotaxonomy are also gaining significance in this method of classification. http://deep-sop.tripod.com/id30.html

OBAT GUBAL - Crude drug - 药材 - 藥材 - Yàocái

OBAT GUBAL Obat gubal (crude drug atau raw material) merupakan obat dari tumbuhan/hewan, terdiri dari bahan alami yang hanya mengalami proses pengumpulan dan pengeringan. Bahan alami adalah seluruh tanaman( herba) dan bagian-bagiannya termasuk cairan tumbuhan, ekstrak, dan hasil sekresi. Proses ekstraksi melibatkan “pelarut/solvent”  disebut cairan pengekstrak (menstrum). Sisa proses ekstraksi (bagian yang tidak larut) disebut ampas (marc). Hasil ekstraksi disebut ekstrak (sari). http://blog.pharmacy-science.com/farmakognosi/obat-gubal-dan-simplisia.html gubal Tesaurus Bahasa Indonesia sinonim : bingkah, bongkah, bungkal, gumpal, http://www.sinonimkata.com/sinonim-152373-gubal.html bingkah Tesaurus Bahasa Indonesia sinonim : bongkah, briket, gumpalan, ketul, pukal, http://www.sinonimkata.com/sinonim-150481-bingkah.html bongkah Tesaurus Bahasa Indonesia sinonim : bingkah, briket, bukur, bungkal, gumpalan, pukal, http://www.sinonimkata.com/sinonim-150563-bongkah.html bungkal Tesaurus Bahasa Indonesia sinonim : anak timbangan, batu dacin, bongkah, buah dacin, gubal, gumpal, http://www.sinonimkata.com/sinonim-150657-bungkal.html Visual ArtiKata Explore gubal in ArtiKata.com > Definisi 'gubal' Indonesian to English pig Indonesian to Indonesian noun 1. kayu yg lunak antara kulit dan teras teras terunjam, -- melayang, pb penduduk asli akan tetap tinggal di negerinya apabila orang asing pergi source: kbbi3 2. bungkah (tanah, batu, dsb) -- besi  bungkah besi; besi kasar (belum dikerjakan) source: kbbi3 verb 3. meng·gu·bal  v merencanakan dan menyusun: ~ undang-undang source: kbbi3 http://www.artikata.com/arti-329200-gubal.html Definition: gubal cambium, clump, pile Kambium adalah lapisan jaringan meristematik pada tumbuhan yang sel-selnya aktif membelah dan bertanggung jawab atas pertumbuhan sekunder tumbuhan. Kambium ditemukan pada batang dan akar. Berdasarkan jaringan tetap yang dibentuknya, dikenal dua kelompok kambium, yaitu kambium gabus (felogen, phellogen) dan kambium pembuluh (vascular cambium). Kambium hanya ditemukan pada tumbuhan dikotil dan gymnospermae. clump (plural clumps) A cluster or lump In biology and health sciences: Cancer cluster, in biomedicine, an occurrence of a greater-than-expected number of cancer cases Cluster headache, a neurological disease that involves an immense degree of pain Cluster of differentiation, protocol used for the identification and investigation of cell surface molecules present on white blood cells. Winter cluster, in beekeeping, a well-defined cluster of honey bees in cold temperatures Cluster (epidemiology), a grouping of cases of disease Genetic cluster, a group of genes (or proteins, or metabolites) whose expression or concentration is similar across a range of conditions lump (plural lumps) Something that protrudes, sticks out, or sticks together; a cluster or blob; a mound, hill, or group. Stir the gravy until there are no more lumps. A group, set, or unit. The money arrived all at once as one big lump sum payment. How many lumps (of sugar) do you use in your coffee?

A crude drug (药材, 藥材, Yàocái)[1] is any naturally occurring, unrefined substance derived from organic or inorganic sources such as plant, animal, bacteria, organs or whole organisms intended for use in the diagnosis, cure, mitigation, treatment, or prevention of disease in man or other animals. Crude drugs[2] are unrefined medications in their raw or natural forms. Prior to the 1950s, every pharmacy student learned about crude drugs in pharmacognosy class. Pharmacognosy is the study of the proper horticulture, harvesting and uses of the raw medications found in nature. Raising, harvesting and selling crude drugs was how many large pharmaceutical companies started out. Companies such as Eli Lilly and Company[3] sold crude drugs to pharmacists to save them time and money, but the early pharmacy graduate would know how to raise their own crude drugs if need be. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crude_medicine crude drug (pharmacology) A plant or animal drug containing all principles characteristic of the drug. The dried leaves, bark, or rhizome of a plant containing therapeutically active principles. Also known as botanical; plant extract. http://www.answers.com/topic/crude-drug A crude drug is naturally occurring drug with pharmacologically active ingredients in an unrefined state, requiring no additional processing for use. An example is ginseng root; patients can consume fresh or dried roots straight in addition to grinding them into powder for use in capsules, teas, and other preparations. The root is ready to use as it comes out of the ground, in contrast with other botanical pharmaceuticals that may require processing to extract useful compounds. Traditional medicine in many cultures relies heavily on crude drugs to treat patients. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-crude-drug.htm

Museum of Materia Medica - University of Toyama - Japan

Division of Pharmacognosy, Institute of Natural Medicine, University of Toyama 2630 Toyama, 930-0194, Japan TEL: 81-76-434-7601 / FAX: 81-76-434-5064 http://www.inm.u-toyama.ac.jp/mmmw/index.html Walking in Museum of Materia Medica Inside of Museum : The room is crowded with crude drug samples. Typical crude drugs are exhibited in boxes as specimens for references Various kinds of Rhei Rhizoma Crude drugs of animal origin Exhibition Arrangement of Crude Drugs in the Museum of Materia Medica 1. Kampo formula (Extracts, Pills, etc.) 2. Chinese patent medicines (Formula of traditional Chinese medicine), House hold medicines produced in Toyama Prefecture 3. Health foods, Chinese patent medicines, Preparation of Yao-shan 4. European crude drugs (Herbs) 5-32,37. Traditional Chinese and Japanese crude drugs 5. Minerals, Resins, etc. 6. Cut samples, Samples for academic purpose 7. Insects and other Animal products 8. Fungi 9 -18.Roots and Rhizomes 19-22.Fruits and Seeds 23. Flowers 24-27. Leaves and Whole Plants 28. Stems and Woods 29. Rare crude drug (Wild Ginseng, etc.), Classical instruments and equipments for pharmaceutical pill preparation 30. Rare crude drugs (Agalloch, Toad Venom, etc.) 31. Crude drugs used for as sexual tonics 32. Crude drugs of Animal origin 37. Barks 33. Chinese folk medicines from Sichuan Prov. 34. Chinese Berberidaceae drugs 35. Chinese folk medicines from Gangxi and Yunnan Prov. and Shanghai, Uighur crude drugs 36. Uighur crude drugs from Uighur Autonomous Region 38. Tibetan crude drugs from Tibet 39. Tibetan crude drugs from Tibet and Qinhai Prov. 40. Mongolian crude drugs from Inner Mongolia and Mongolian People's Republic 41-42. Japanese folk medicines 43. Korean folk medicines 44-45. Taiwanese folk medicines 46. Chinese cut drugs (Yin-pian) from Hongkong 47. Vietnamese folk medicines 48-49. European crude drugs 50. African folk medicines, Laotian folk medicines 51. Vietnamese folk medicines 52. Crude drugs from Vietnam 53-55. Ayurvedic crude drugs and folk medicines from Nepal 56-58. Ayurvedic crude drugs from India 59-61. Ayurvedic crude drugs from Sri Lanka 62. Literature of Tibetan medicine ("rGyu-shi"), Tibetan crude drugs, Plant specimens from Nepal 63. Ayurvedic medicines and crude drugs from Sri Lanka and India Jamu (Indonesian crude drugs) 64. Tibetan medicines (Precious pills), Crude drugs and Medical literature 65. Crude drugs from Myanmer 66. Tibetan crude drugs from India and Bhutan 67. Tibetan crude drugs from Nepal 68-69. Unani medicines from Pakistan and Bangladesh (Pills and Crude drugs) 70-71. Jamu medicines and Crude drugs from Indonesia 72. Thai crude drugs 73. Brazilian folk medicines The most numerous materials kept in Museum are Chinese crude drugs used in the system of traditional Chinese medicine, consisting of one third of the total number, followed by Indian crude drugs used in the Ayurvedic system of medicine. Part of samples in Museum was collected by granted subsidies as follows Grant-in-Aid for International Scientific Research Program : Field Research, from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan. 6/30 - 9/27, 1983, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Thailand and Hong Kong (representative : Tsuneo Namba)   Grant-in-Aid for International Scientific Research Program : Field Research, from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan. 6/30 - 9/27, 1983, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Thailand and Hong Kong (representative : Tsuneo Namba)   Research Program trusted by Toyama prefecture. 4/12 - 5/10, 1991, Nepal, India and Hong Kong (representative : Tsuneo Namba)   Grant-in-Aid for JSPS Cooperation Programmes with Southeast Asian Countries under the Core University System, from the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. 2/20 - 3/7, 1994, Indonesia (Katsuko Komatsu)   Grant-in-Aid for International Scientific Research Program : University-to-University Cooperative Research, from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan. 7/15- 8/14, 1993, 7/22 - 8/14, 1994, 8/18 - 9/19, 1995, China (representative : Tsuneo Namba)   Research Program trusted by Toyama prefecture.6/30 - 8/13, 1996, Nepal, China (representative : Tsuneo Namba)   Grant-in-Aid for for International Scientific Research Program : Field Research, from the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture of Japan. 9/6 - 10/31, 1997, 11/6 - 12/10, 1998, Vietnam, Thailand and Myanmar (representative : Shigetoshi Kadota)   Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B)(2): Comparative Ethnopharmacology in China, No.11695086, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. 7/10 ? 8.23 (1999), 7.14 - 8.24 (2000), 9.9 - 9.30(2001), China (representative : Katsuko Komatsu).   Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B)(2): Inquiry into Kampo Drug Resources of Asia: Investigation on Mongolian and Thai Medicinal Plants, No.14406030, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. 7/12 ? 8.16 (2002), 7.19 ? 7.31 (2003), Mongolia (representative : Katsuko Komatsu).   Core University Program : Field Research on Curcuma plants and drugs for authentication and on Thai traditional medicine for construction of database, the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. 11.26 - 12.1 (2001), 11.8 - 11.30 (2002), 6.14 ? 6. 23 (2003), Thailand (Katsuko Komatsu) http://www.inm.u-toyama.ac.jp/mmmw/sansakuE.html

Outline of Museum of Materia Medica Purpose From several countries in the world, this museum has been collecting crude drug samples used in the Traditional System of medicine and ethnomedicine which various ethnic groups have developed in own country. These samples are collected and displayed for the purpose of research and education. History 1973.10 The Museum was started as a crude drug sample collection room belonging to the Department of Development of Natural Drug Resources, Research Institute for Wakan-Yaku affiliated to Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Toyama University. 1974. 6 Founded, Research Institute for Wakan-Yaku under Toyama University. 1978. 6 Founded, Research Institute for Wakan-Yaku under Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University. 1980. 4 Founded, a crude drug sample room in Research Institute for Wakan-Yaku, Toyama Medical and Pharmaceutical University. Samples were moved from Toyama University. 1985. 7 A preservation building for Pharmaceutical Materials was built and the ground floor was developed as Museum of Materia Medica (202 m2) under the guidance of Department of Development of Natural Drug Resources. Samples were moved from Research Institute for Wakan-Yaku. 1994. 9 Extended, the floor size of Museum of Materia Medica (193 m2). 1996. 5 Founded, Research Center for Ethnomedicines under Research Institute for Wakan-Yaku (associate professor 1, assistant professor 1). The Museum has been handled by the Center. 1998. 4 Founded, Foreign visiting professor and associate professor in Research Center for Ethnomedicines. 1998.10 First the general public exhibition. 2000. 4 First open of Database "ETHMEDmmm"   Building The Museum occupies 395 m2 area (exhibition room 270 m2, classification room 13 m2, treatment room 22 m2, storage room 68 m2 and others 22 m2). Samples The Museum keeps and displays crude drugs (19,000 samples indexed and 8, 000 samples under process of index), herbarium (32,000 samples indexed and 37,000 samples under process of index), pharmaceutical preparations of crude drugs (200 samples), materials of the local medicine dealership, herbological books, and so on. The most numerous materials kept in Museum are Chinese crude drugs used in the system of traditional Chinese medicine, consisting of one third of the total number, followed by Indian crude drugs used in the Ayurvedic system of medicine. In addition, the crude drugs used in traditional medicines of Tibet, Mongolia, Indonesia (Jamu), Thailand and Arabic countries (Unani medicine), as well as folk medicines used in Japan, Taiwan, Korea, East Africa, India, Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Brazil and Europe (medicinal herbs), are also exhibited. This is the biggest museum of crude drugs in the world, concerning the number of items held in. Most of the items including crude drugs have significant educational, scientific and historical value. Others The museum is not open to the public except for the academic and research purpose, however, there will be general public exhibition once a year. On the 5th general public exhibition, 70 people visited the museum (November 2, 2002). In the recent years, more than 500 scholars, including about 70 foreign nationals a year, have visited. For the methods of preservation and arrangement of the materials in it and its educational purpose, Museum of Materia Medica is a unique establishment in the world. Many foreign scholars are interested in setting up similar to this museum of traditional medicine in their home. http://www.inm.u-toyama.ac.jp/mmmw/sgaiyouE.html

Details of information on ethnomedicine samples displayed in Museum, based on both classical and scientific background 　How to use ETHMEDmmm Shengnong, a philosopher, is carrying Ganoderma (a mushroom drug) in his hand. From "Illustrative literature of ancient medical history of China" http://www.inm.u-toyama.ac.jp/mmmw/page2E.html

The Hermit's art of healing

SIMPLISIA 2 - TEKNOLOGI PENYIAPAN SIMPLISIA TERSTANDAR

TEKNOLOGI PENYIAPAN SIMPLISIA TERSTANDAR TANAMAN OBAT Panen merupakan salah satu rangkaian tahapan dalam proses budidaya tanaman obat. Waktu, cara pemanenan dan penanganan bahan setelah panen merupakan periode kritis yang sangat menentukan kualitas dan kuantitas hasil tanaman. Oleh karena itu waktu, cara panen dan penanganan tanaman yang tepat dan benar merupakan faktor penentu kua-litas dan kuantitas. Setiap jenis tanaman memiliki waktu dan cara panen yang berbeda. Tanaman yang dipanen buahnya memiliki waktu dan cara panen yang berbeda dengan tanaman yang dipanen berupa biji, rimpang, daun, kulit dan batang. Begitu juga tanaman yang mengalami stres lingkungan akan memiliki waktu panen yang berbeda meskipun jenis tanamannya sama. Berikut ini diuraikan saat panen yang tepat untuk beberapa jenis tanaman obat. Biji Panen tidak bisa dilakukan secara serentak karena perbedaan waktu pematangan dari buah atau polong yang berbeda. Pemanenan biji di-lakukan pada saat biji telah masak fisiologis. Fase ini ditandai dengan sudah maksimalnya pertumbuhan buah atau polong dan biji yang di dalamnya telah terbentuk dengan sempurna. Kulit buah atau polong mengalami perubahan warna misalnya kulit polong yang semula warna hijau kini berubah menjadi agak kekuningan dan mulai mengering. Pemanenan biji pada tanaman semusim yang sifatnya determinate dilakukan secara serentak pada suatu luasan tertentu. Pemanenan dilakukan setelah 60% kulit polong atau kulit biji sudah mulai mengering. Hal ini berbeda dengan tanaman semusim indeterminate dan tahunan, yang umumnya dipanen secara berkala berdasarkan pemasakan dari biji/polong. Buah Buah harus dipanen setelah masak fisiologis dengan cara memetik. Pemanenan sebelum masak fisiologis akan menghasilkan buah dengan kualitas yang rendah dan kuantitasnya berkurang. Buah yang dipanen pada saat masih muda, seperti buah mengkudu, jeruk nipis, jambu biji dan buah ceplukan akan memiliki rasa yang tidak enak dan aromanya kurang sedap. Begitu pula halnya dengan pemanenan yang terlambat akan menyebabkan penurunan kualitas karena akan terjadi perombakan bahan aktif yang terdapat di dalamnya menjadi zat lain. Selain itu tekstur buah menjadi lembek dan buah menjadi lebih cepat busuk. Daun Pemanenan daun dilakukan pada saat tanaman telah tumbuh maksimal dan sudah memasuki periode matang fisiologis dan dilakukan dengan memangkas tanaman. Pemangkasan dilakukan dengan menggunakan pisau yang bersih atau gunting stek. Pemanenan yang terlalu cepat menyebabkan hasil produksi yang diperoleh rendah dan kandungan bahan bahan aktifnya juga rendah, seperti tanaman jati belanda dapat dipanen pada umur 1 - 1,5 tahun, jambu biji pada umur 6 - 7 bulan, cincau 3 - 4 bulan dan lidah buaya pada umur 12 - 18 bulan setelah tanam. Demikian juga dengan pemanenan yang terlambat menyebabkan daun mengalami penuaan (senescence) sehingga mutunya rendah karena bahan aktifnya sudah terdegradasi. Pada beberapa tanaman pemanenan yang terlambat akan mempersulit proses panen. Rimpang Untuk jenis rimpang waktu pemanenan bervariasi tergantung penggunaan. Tetapi pada umumnya pe-manenan dilakukan pada saat tanaman berumur 8 - 10 bulan. Seperti rimpang jahe, untuk kebutuhan ekspor dalam bentuk segar jahe dipanen pada umur 8 - 9 bulan setelah tanam, sedangkan untuk bibit 10 - 12 bulan. Selanjutnya untuk keperluan pem-buatan jahe asinan, jahe awetan dan permen dipanen pada umur 4 - 6 bulan karena pada umur tersebut serat dan pati belum terlalu tinggi. Sebagai bahan obat, rimpang di-panen setelah tua yaitu umur 9 - 12 bulan setelah tanam. Untuk temu-lawak pemanenan rimpang dilaku-kan setelah tanaman berumur 10 - 12 bulan. Temulawak yang dipanen pada umur tersebut menghasilkan kadar minyak atsiri dan kurkumin yang tinggi. Penanaman rimpang dilakukan pada saat awal musim hujan dan dipanen pada pertengahan musim kemarau. Saat panen yang tepat ditandai dengan mulai menge-ringnya bagian tanaman yang berada di atas permukaan tanah (daun dan batang semu), misalnya kunyit, temulawak, jahe, dan kencur. Bunga Bunga digunakan dalam industri farmasi dan kosmetik dalam bentuk segar maupun kering. Bunga yang digunakan dalam bentuk segar, pemanenan dilakukan pada saat bunga kuncup atau setelah per-tumbuhannya maksimal. Berbeda dengan bunga yang digunakan dalam bentuk kering, pemanenan dilakukan pada saat bunga sedang mekar. Seperti bunga piretrum, bunga yang dipanen dalam keadaan masih kuncup menghasilkan kadar piretrin yang lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan bunga yang sudah mekar. Kayu Pemanenan kayu dilakukan setelah pada kayu terbentuk senyawa metabolit sekunder secara maksimal. Umur panen tanaman berbeda-beda tergantung jenis tanaman dan ke-cepatan pembentukan metabolit sekundernya. Tanaman secang baru dapat dipanen setelah berumur 4 sampai 5 tahun, karena apabila dipanen terlalu muda kandungan zat aktifnya seperti tanin dan sappan masih relatif sedikit. Herba Pada beberapa tanaman semusim, waktu panen yang tepat adalah pada saat pertumbuhan vegetatif tanaman sudah maksimal dan akan memasuki fase generatif atau dengan kata lain pemanenan dilakukan sebelum tanaman berbunga. Pemanenan yang dilakukan terlalu awal mengakibat-kan produksi tanaman yang kita dapatkan rendah dan kandungan bahan aktifnya juga rendah. Sedang-kan jika pemanenan terlambat akan menghasilkan mutu rendah karena jumlah daun berkurang, dan batang tanaman sudah berkayu. Contohnya tanaman sambiloto sebaiknya di-panen pada umur 3 - 4 bulan, pegagan pada umur 2 - 3 bulan setelah tanam, meniran pada umur kurang lebih 3,5 bulan atau sebelum berbunga dan tanaman ceplukan dipanen setelah umur 1 - 1,5 bulan atau segera setelah timbul kuncup bunga, terbentuk. Cara Panen Pada waktu panen peralatan dan tempat yang digunakan harus bersih dan bebas dari cemaran dan dalam keadaan kering. Alat yang diguna-kan dipilih dengan tepat untuk mengurangi terbawanya bahan atau tanah yang tidak diperlukan. Seperti rimpang, alat untuk panen dapat menggunakan garpu atau cangkul. Bahan yang rusak atau busuk harus segera dibuang atau dipisahkan. Penempatan dalam wadah (keranjang, kantong, karung dan lain-lain) tidak boleh terlalu penuh sehingga bahan tidak menumpuk dan tidak rusak. Selanjutnya dalam waktu pengangkutan diusahakan supaya bahan tidak terkena panas yang berlebihan, karena dapat menyebabkan terjadinya proses fermentasi/ busuk. Bahan juga harus dijaga dari gangguan hama (hama gudang, tikus dan binatang peliharaan). Penanganan Pasca Panen Pasca panen merupakan kelanjut-an dari proses panen terhadap tanaman budidaya atau hasil dari penambangan alam yang fungsinya antara lain untuk membuat bahan hasil panen tidak mudah rusak dan memiliki kualitas yang baik serta mudah disimpan untuk diproses selanjutnya. Untuk memulai proses pasca panen perlu diperhatikan cara dan tenggang waktu pengumpulan bahan tanaman yang ideal setelah dilakukan proses panen tanaman tersebut. Selama proses pasca panen sangat penting diperhatikan keber-sihan dari alat-alat dan bahan yang digunakan, juga bagi pelaksananya perlu memperhatikan perlengkapan seperti masker dan sarung tangan. Tujuan dari pasca panen ini untuk menghasilkan simplisia tanaman obat yang bermutu, efek terapinya tinggi sehingga memiliki nilai jual yang tinggi. Secara umum faktor-faktor dalam penanganan pasca panen yang perlu diperhatikan adalah sebagai berikut : Penyortiran (segar) Penyortiran segar dilakukan setelah selesai panen dengan tujuan untuk memisahkan kotoran-kotoran atau bahan-bahan asing, bahan yang tua dengan yang muda atau bahan yang ukurannya lebih besar atau lebih kecil. Bahan nabati yang baik memiliki kandungan campuran bahan organik asing tidak lebih dari 2%. Proses penyortiran pertama bertujuan untuk memisahkan bahan yang busuk atau bahan yang muda dan yang tua serta untuk mengurangi jumlah pengotor yang ikut terbawa dalam bahan. Pencucian Pencucian bertujuan menghilang-kan kotoran-kotoran dan mengurangi mikroba-mikroba yang melekat pada bahan. Pencucian harus segera di-lakukan setelah panen karena dapat mempengaruhi mutu bahan. Pencucian menggunakan air bersih seperti air dari mata air, sumur atau PAM. Penggunaan air kotor menyebabkan jumlah mikroba pada bahan tidak akan berkurang bahkan akan bertambah. Pada saat pencucian per-hatikan air cucian dan air bilasan-nya, jika masih terlihat kotor ulangi pencucian/pembilasan sekali atau dua kali lagi. Perlu diperhatikan bahwa pencucian harus dilakukan dalam waktu yang sesingkat mungkin untuk menghindari larut dan terbuangnya zat yang terkandung dalam bahan. Pencucian bahan dapat dilakukan dengan beberapa cara antara lain : a. Perendaman bertingkat Perendaman biasanya dilakukan pada bahan yang tidak banyak mengandung kotoran seperti daun, bunga, buah dll. Proses perendaman dilakukan beberapa kali pada wadah dan air yang berbeda, pada rendaman pertama air cuciannya mengandung kotoran paling banyak. Saat perendaman kotoran-kotoran yang melekat kuat pada bahan dapat dihilangkan langsung dengan tangan. Metoda ini akan menghemat penggunaan air, namun sangat mudah melarutkan zat-zat yang terkandung dalam bahan. b. Penyemprotan Penyemprotan biasanya dilakukan pada bahan yang kotorannya banyak melekat pada bahan seperti rimpang, akar, umbi dan lain-lain. Proses penyemprotan dilakukan dengan menggunakan air yang bertekanan tinggi. Untuk lebih meyakinkan kebersihan bahan, kotoran yang melekat kuat pada bahan dapat dihilangkan langsung dengan tangan. Proses ini biasanya menggunakan air yang cukup banyak, namun dapat mengurangi resiko hilang/larutnya kandungan dalam bahan. c. Penyikatan (manual maupun otomatis) Pencucian dengan menyikat dapat dilakukan terhadap jenis bahan yang keras/tidak lunak dan kotoran-nya melekat sangat kuat. Pencucian ini memakai alat bantu sikat yang di- gunakan bentuknya bisa bermacam-macam, dalam hal ini perlu diperhatikan kebersihan dari sikat yang digunakan. Penyikatan dilakukan terhadap bahan secara perlahan dan teratur agar tidak merusak bahannya. Pembilasan dilakukan pada bahan yang sudah disikat. Metode pencucian ini dapat menghasilkan bahan yang lebih bersih dibandingkan dengan metode pencucian lainnya, namun meningkatkan resiko kerusa-kan bahan, sehingga merangsang tumbuhnya bakteri atau mikro-organisme. Penirisan/pengeringan Setelah pencucian, bahan lang-sung ditiriskan di rak-rak pengering. Khusus untuk bahan rimpang penjemuran dilakukan selama 4 - 6 hari. Selesai pengeringan dilakukan kembali penyortiran apabila bahan langsung digunakan dalam bentuk segar sesuai dengan permintaan. Contoh-nya untuk rimpang jahe, perlu dilakukan penyortiran sesuai standar perdagangan, karena mutu bahan menentukan harga jual.  Berdasarkan standar perdagangan, mutu rimpang jahe segar dikategorikan sebagai berikut : Mutu I : bobot 250 g/rimpang, kulit tidak terkelupas, tidak mengandung benda asing dan tidak berjamur. Mutu II : bobot 150 - 249 g/rimpang, kulit tidak terkelupas, tidak mengandung benda asing dan tidak berjamur. Mutu III : bobot sesuai hasil analisis, kulit yang terkelupas maksimum 10%, benda asing maksimum 3%, kapang maksimum 10%. Untuk ekspor jahe dalam bentuk asinan jahe, dipanen pada umur 3 - 4 bulan, karena pada umur tersebut serat dan pati jahe masih sedikit. Mutu jahe yang diinginkan adalah bobot 60 - 80 g/rimpang. Selesai penyortiran bahan langsung dikemas dengan menggunakan jala plastik atau sesuai dengan permintaan. Di samping dijual dalam bentuk segar, rimpang juga dapat dijual dalam bentuk kering yaitu simplisia yang dikeringkan. Perajangan Perajangan pada bahan dilakukan untuk mempermudah proses selanjutnya seperti pengeringan, pengemasan, penyulingan minyak atsiri dan penyimpanan. Perajangan biasanya hanya dilakukan pada bahan yang ukurannya agak besar dan tidak lunak seperti akar, rim-pang, batang, buah dan lain-lain. Ukuran perajangan tergantung dari bahan yang digunakan dan ber-pengaruh terhadap kualitas simplisia yang dihasilkan. Perajangan terlalu tipis dapat mengurangi zat aktif yang terkandung dalam bahan. Sedangkan jika terlalu tebal, maka pengurangan kadar air dalam bahan agak sulit dan memerlukan waktu yang lama dalam penjemuran dan kemungkinan besar bahan mudah ditumbuhi oleh jamur. Ketebalan perajangan untuk rimpang temulawak adalah sebesar 7 - 8 mm, jahe, kunyit dan kencur 3 - 5 mm. Perajangan bahan dapat dilakukan secara manual dengan pisau yang tajam dan terbuat dari steinlees ataupun dengan mesin pemotong/ perajang. Bentuk irisan split atau slice tergantung tujuan pemakaian. Untuk tujuan mendapatkan minyak atsiri yang tinggi bentuk irisan sebaiknya adalah membujur (split) dan jika ingin bahan lebih cepat kering bentuk irisan sebaiknya melintang (slice). Pengeringan Pengeringan adalah suatu cara pengawetan atau pengolahan pada bahan dengan cara mengurangi kadar air, sehingga proses pembusukan dapat terhambat. Dengan demikian dapat dihasilkan simplisia terstandar, tidak mudah rusak dan tahan disimpan dalam waktu yang lama Dalam proses ini, kadar air dan reaksi-reaksi zat aktif dalam bahan akan berkurang, sehingga suhu dan waktu pengeringan perlu diperhatikan. Suhu pengeringan tergantung pada jenis bahan yang dikeringkan. Pada umumnya suhu pengeringan adalah antara 40 - 60oC dan hasil yang baik dari proses pengeringan adalah simplisia yang mengandung kadar air 10%. Demikian pula dengan waktu pengeringan juga ber-variasi, tergantung pada jenis bahan yang dikeringkan seperti rimpang, daun, kayu ataupun bunga. Hal lain yang perlu diperhatikan dalam proses pengeringan adalah kebersihan (khususnya pengeringan menggunakan sinar matahari), kelembaban udara, aliran udara dan tebal bahan (tidak saling menumpuk). Pengeringan bahan dapat dilakukan secara tradisional dengan menggunakan sinar matahari ataupun secara modern dengan menggunakan alat pengering seperti oven, rak pengering, blower ataupun dengan fresh dryer. Pengeringan hasil rajangan dari temu-temuan dapat dilakukan dengan menggunakan sinar matahari, oven, blower dan fresh dryer pada suhu 30 - 50oC. Pengeringan pada suhu terlalu tinggi dapat merusak komponen aktif, sehingga mutunya dapat menurun. Untuk irisan rimpang jahe dapat dikeringkan menggunakan alat pengering energi surya, di mana suhu pengering dalam ruang pengering berkisar antara 36 - 45oC dengan tingkat kelembaban 32,8 - 53,3% menghasilkan kadar minyak atsiri lebih tinggi dibandingkan dengan pengeringan matahari langsung maupun oven. Untuk irisan temulawak yang dikeringkan dengan sinar matahari langsung, sebelum dikeringkan terlebih dulu irisan rimpang direndam dalam larutan asam sitrat 3% selama 3 jam. Selesai peren-aman irisan dicuci kembali sampai bersih, ditiriskan kemudian dijemur di panas matahari. Tujuan dari perendaman adalah untuk mencegah terjadinya degradasi kurkuminoid pada simplisia pada saat penjemuran juga mencegah penguapan minyak atsiri yang berlebihan. Dari hasil analisis diperoleh kadar minyak atsirinya 13,18% dan kurkumin 1,89%. Di samping menggunakan sinar matahari langsung, penjemuran juga dapat dilakukan dengan menggunakan blower pada suhu 40 - 50oC. Kelebihan dari alat ini adalah waktu penjemuran lebih singkat yaitu sekitar 8 jam, di-bandingkan dengan sinar matahari membutuhkan waktu lebih dari 1 minggu. Selain kedua jenis pengering tersebut juga terdapat alat pengering fresh dryer, di mana suhunya hampir sama dengan suhu ruang, tempat tertutup dan lebih higienis. Kelemahan dari alat ter-sebut waktu pengeringan selama 3 hari. Untuk daun atau herba, pengeringan dapat dilakukan dengan menggunakan sinar matahari di dalam tampah yang ditutup dengan kain hitam, menggunakan alat pengering fresh dryer atau cukup diangin-anginkan saja. Pengeringan dapat menyebabkan perubahan-perubahan hidrolisa enzimatis, pencokelatan, fermentasi dan oksidasi. Ciri-ciri waktu pengeringan sudah berakhir apabila daun atau-pun temu-temuan sudah dapat di-patahkan dengan mudah. Pada umumnya bahan (simplisia) yang sudah kering memiliki kadar air ± 8 - 10%. Dengan jumlah kadar air tersebut kerusakan bahan dapat ditekan baik dalam pengolahan maupun waktu penyimpanan. Penyortiran (kering). Penyortiran dilakukan bertujuan untuk memisahkan benda-benda asing yang terdapat pada simplisia, misalnya akar-akar, pasir, kotoran unggas atau benda asing lainnya. Proses penyortiran merupakan tahap akhir dari pembuatan simplisia kering sebelum dilakukan pengemasan, penyimpanan atau pengolahan lebih lanjut. Setelah penyortiran simplisia ditimbang untuk mengetahui rendemen hasil dari proses pasca panen yang dilakukan. Pengemasan Pengemasan dapat dilakukan terhadap simplisia yang sudah dikeringkan. Jenis kemasan yang di-gunakan dapat berupa plastik, kertas maupun karung goni. Persyaratan jenis kemasan yaitu dapat menjamin mutu produk yang dikemas, mudah dipakai, tidak mempersulit penanganan, dapat melindungi isi pada waktu pengangkutan, tidak beracun dan tidak bereaksi dengan isi dan kalau boleh mempunyai bentuk dan rupa yang menarik. Berikan label yang jelas pada tiap kemasan tersebut yang isinya menuliskan ; nama bahan, bagian dari tanaman bahan yang digunakan, tanggal pengemasan, nomor/kode produksi, nama/alamat penghasil, berat bersih, metode penyimpanan. Penyimpanan Penyimpanan simplisia dapat di-lakukan di ruang biasa (suhu kamar) ataupun di ruang ber AC. Ruang tempat penyimpanan harus bersih, udaranya cukup kering dan berventilasi. Ventilasi harus cukup baik karena hama menyukai udara yang lembab dan panas. Perlakuan simplisia dengan iradiasi sinar gamma dosis 10 kGy (kilograys) dapat menurunkan jumlah patogen yang dapat meng-kontaminasi simplisia tanaman obat (Berlinda dkk, 1998). Dosis ini tidak merubah kadar air dan kadar minyak atsiri simplisia selama penyimpanan 3 - 6 bulan. Jadi sebelum disimpan pokok utama yang harus diperhatikan adalah cara penanganan yang tepat dan higienes.  Hal-hal yang perlu diperhatikan mengenai tempat penyimpanan simplisia adalah : Gudang harus terpisah dari tem-pat penyimpanan bahan lainnya ataupun penyimpanan alat dan dipelihara dengan baik. Ventilasi udara cukup baik dan bebas dari kebocoran atau kemungkinan masuk air hujan. Suhu gudang tidak melebihi 30oC. Kelembaban udara sebaiknya di-usahakan serendah mungkin (65oC) untuk mencegah terjadinya penyerapan air. Kelembaban udara yang tinggi dapat memacu pertumbuhan mikroorganisme se-hingga menurunkan mutu bahan baik dalam bentuk segar maupun kering. Masuknya sinar matahari langsung menyinari simplisia harus dicegah. Masuknya hewan, baik serangga maupun tikus yang sering memakan simplisia yang disimpan harus dicegah. (Sumber: Bagem Sembiring, Warta Puslitbangbun Vol.13 No. 2, Agustus 2007) http://balittro.litbang.deptan.go.id/ind/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=75:teknologi-penyiapan-simplisia-terstandar-tanaman-obat&catid=19:artikel&Itemid=9 determinate - indeterminate   In biology and especially botany, indeterminate growth refers to growth that is not terminated in contrast to determinate growth that stops once a genetically pre-determined structure has completely formed. Thus, a plant that grows and produces flowers and fruit until killed by frost or some other external factor is called indeterminate. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indeterminate_growth penuaan (senescence) Senescence or biological aging is the change in the biology of an organism as it ages after its maturity. Such changes range from those affecting its cells and their function to that of the whole organism. There are a number of theories as to why senescence occurs, including ones that claim it is programmed by gene expression changes and that it is the accumulative damage of biological processes. The word senescence is derived from the Latin word senex, meaning old man, old age, or advanced in age. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senescence  iradiasi sinar gamma dosis 10 kGy (kilograys) Radiation dose is the quantity of radiation energy absorbed by the food as it passes through the radiation field during processing. It is measured in Gray (Gy) [one Gray equals one Joule of energy absorbed per kilogram of food being irradiated] or in rad (1 Gy = 100 rads). International health and safety authorities have endorsed the safety of irradiation for all foods up to a dose level of 10,000 Gy (10 kGy).  http://uw-food-irradiation.engr.wisc.edu/Process.html Irradiation is a more general term of the exposure of materials to radiation to achieve a technical goal (in this context "ionizing radiation" is implied). As such it is also used on non-food items, such as medical devices, plastics, tubes for gas pipelines, hoses for floor heating, shrink-foils for food packaging, automobile parts, wires and cables (isolation), tires, and even gemstones. The dose of radiation is measured in the SI unit known as the gray (Gy). One gray of radiation is equal to 1 joule of energy absorbed per kilogram of food material. In radiation processing of foods, the doses are generally measured in kilograys (kGy, 1,000 Gy). Medium dose applications (1 kGy to 10 kGy) Reduction of spoilage microbes to prolong shelf-life of meat, poultry and seafoods under refrigeration 1.50–3.00 kGy Reduction of pathogenic microbes in fresh and frozen meat, poultry and seafoods 3.00–7.00 kGy Reducing the number of microorganisms in spices to improve hygienic quality 10.00 kGy Gamma radiation is radiation of photons in the gamma part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The radiation is obtained through the use of radioisotopes, generally cobalt-60 or, in theory, caesium-137. Cobalt-60 is bred from cobalt-59 using neutron irradiation in specifically designed nuclear reactors. Caesium-137 is recovered during the processing of spent nuclear fuel. Because this technology – except for military applications – is not commercially available, insufficient quantities of it are available on the global isotope markets for use in large scale, commercial irradiators. Presently, caesium-137 is used only in small hospital units to treat blood before transfusion to prevent Graft-versus-host disease. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_irradiation